Womens Rights Essay, Research Paper
Throughout many years preceding World War I, many women were not happy with
their jobs. In 1870 most women worked in the agriculture of their homes, or did
domestic service. Even by 1910 though, more women were already working in
factories, offices, stores and telephone exchanges. As opposed to 14.8% in 1870,
24% of women were now working in 1910. The practices of withdrawing from work
once married and only returning when necessary (i.e. husband?s salary
decreased, laid off, injured, desertion) was unfortunately still being widely
accepted and practiced. The birth of modern corporations began to change the
location and nature of women?s paid labor and was an important factor in the
advancement of women?s labor (Greenwald 5). Multi plant firms began to
transform the structure of business, as well as adding an element of elementary
competition. There were still although a few financial giants, created by vital
industries, such as John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, Swift, Borden, whose
practices ultimately determined how people lived, and what they bought
(Greenwald 7). As large factories increasingly began to replace older and
smaller factories, skilled work became less needed and women even started to
make goods as machine tenders. Already, this reorganization was improving women?s
status in the work force. There was although a great deal of gender segregation,
women were low paid and restricted to unskilled and semiskilled jobs, usually in
textile mills, food processing, apparel, tobacco factories, and commercial
laundries. Men of course were given jobs concerning transportation and heavy
industry. Unfortunately, as heavy industry became increasingly important, it
resulted in fewer opportunities for women because companies were hiring more
men. Another factor of unfairness was the fact that women were barred from
apprenticeship programs resulting in the loss of better-paid and more
sophisticated jobs in the metal industry (Greenwald 11). World War I though
would provide a great opportunity for women to get ahead and although the
movement into the work force was already underway, and it would certainly
provide as a stimulus. As a result of World War I and changing social views,
women?s role and place in American Society changed greatly.
The results of World War I on women?s place in society can be seen clearly
in statistical evidence. Between 1910-1920 there was a dramatic increase in
women in offices as clerks and in semi-skilled jobs, such as typists, cashiers,
and typists. At the same time although, there was a decrease of women cleaners,
tailoresses, dressmakers and servants. As the men began to leave for war from
America, more women began to work, the substantial change although was not the
number of new entrants in the work force, but the numbers of women changing jobs
and the new opportunities being opened to them. Many women decided to change
jobs in hopes of better opportunities. Increased job standardization,
specialization of work and increasing supervision resulted in making many jobs
interchangeable. Women cashiers for instance would become fare collectors or
retail workers would move to office work. This was called skill dilution and it
enabled workers to move from one area to another. As the war progressed there
was a greater need for American War materials, and after the 2nd draft of men in
late summer, the male workforce was greatly decreased. Companies began to beg
for workers, especially those that had contracts to fill and war resources to
supply. Businesses realized the number of women who could work and began to
print ads saying ?Women Wanted?. Bridgeport munitions even distributed
flyers from an airplane urging women to leave their homes and work. This created
many new opportunities for women, and they soon realized that. As women changed
jobs and took over those formally done by white men, black women took the
opportunity to do those formally of white women. This was the first time a white
woman could chose her job, and she took it very seriously and to its full
advantage. Many women researched, sought advice, and did other things in order
to choose the best job possible (Greenwald 35). The rise in the productions of
war resources needed drew thousands of women into the iron and steel industries
as well. Women even began to produce explosives, fireworks, and even medicines.
During the war, women did 20% of the manufacturing in the electrical industry.
Women started to engage in untraditional jobs, such as grinding and drilling due
to the absence of men as well. In all cases women looked for the best
opportunities, for they saw the job of a switchboard operator more secure than
that of dipping chocolates (Greenwald 46). In 1917, 99% of women were
switchboard operators, compared to 24% in 1914. The war depended on women and
men to work together.
Women were quick to see the war as a good opportunity to improve their
economic status in the society and took full advantage of this. The recognition
of women by others and the government for their efforts illustrated to them
their importance in the war effort. The Secretary of War, Navy, the President,
and many other officials all recognized women and their importance in the
attempt to win the war. Thus, women saw the war, as a liberating experience and
it was important to them to support the war effort (Braybon 15). Before the war
there were a few women wage earner organizations and trade unions, but during
the war union membership grew a great deal. Women began to join ranks of
formally male unions, such as the federation of Federal Employees, and the
Brotherhood of Railway Clerks. In 1919, many household workers began to form
local organizations for the purpose of bettering wages and working conditions in
Alabama, Texas, and Oklahoma. The war fortunately hit at a time when cooperate
capitalism was creating new technology and in turn new jobs and labor policies.
Because of this new structure, women?s paid employment was changing and
increasing opportunities in workplace and in autonomy were occurring (Greenwald
45). Women took their opportunity to its full potential, realizing how much they
were needed. Many women would accept many jobs at one time and return to the one
they preferred the most. This was called labor turnover, and it caused an
increased wage period in the US, but it also caused the companies to change
their policies and create more advantages for their employees. Women seized
opportunities to petition for fairer labor policies and struck at workplaces for
better pay and conditions. Women began to stand up for their rights because they
were needed (Greenwald 47). Corporations began to experiment with training
programs for women and the federal government also began to create agencies to
establish safe and sanitary working conditions for women in order to oversee
their introduction into male dominated work.
The impact of World War I on women workers created an impetus for the
creation of agencies to protect women?s rights. In 1919 both the Women?s
Branch in the Ordnance Department of the Army was created, and the Women?s
Service Section of the US Railroad Administration. At this time employers were
hiring because of work force shortage and they were still implementing policies
which served their own interests. Soon they started to implement welfare
policies though and 200 even added employment offices to help put women workers
in the jobs best suited for them. 400 companies in 1919 began to expand their
welfare measures, such as medical care, lunchrooms, bathrooms, and clubs, to
attract women employees. This was one of the first attempts that companies began
to make which accommodated their employees needs more than their own.
There were two training programs during the war, which received much
publicity and created a basis for years to come (Greenwald 87). One was the
Recording and Computing Machinery Corporation in Dayton, Ohio, and the other was
the Lincoln Motor Company of Detroit, Michigan. The Recording and Computing
Machinery Corporation created separate training facilities for women, ensured
strict supervision, paid special attention to inefficient workers, and created a
fair system of pay bonuses. Their training school even consisted of female
teachers to increase women?s confidence, although they were supervised by a
male supervisor. The women would begin with ten days of training at a low pay,
and from then move on to regular jobs. To ensure the work of the boss for each
department was successful, bonuses were offered to the boss whose women produced
the most output, but they were warned not to exhaust their workers. Both in the
Recording and Computing Corporation and in the Lincoln Motor Company, women
began to receive wages for piecework completion instead of just hourly wages.
Lincoln Motor Company had their own ideas although. They believed in a system of
strict surveillance to protect women workers. On top of that they hired women
only with ?good character? and did not allow men and women to mingle. To
make sure they did not communicate, the company gave men and women different
rest periods, different entrances to company restaurants and alternate stopping
times (Greenwald 85). To increase the employment of women workers and to satisfy
them although, they did give social club dinners on a monthly basis for the
women. In 1919 they even thought about starting a women?s orchestra, singing
club, and baseball and basketball teams. All this was done so that the company
would have a part in every aspect of the women worker?s lives.
In 1918 the government also began to take a greater part in the aspect of
labor policies realizing the dramatic increase of women in new areas of work. In
1914 out of the total iron workforce, there was only 2.3% women workers, but in
1918 after the 2nd draft for the war, 95% of workers were women. There was a
great need for cannons, rifles and other army and defense equipment. In 1918 the
government ordered a policy for federal companies, based on the recommendations
of the Women?s Bureau of Ordnance. It restricted the workday to 8 hours,
created a fair wage scale, limited physical work done by women, and enforced
existing state legal standards for employment of women. The Women?s Bureau of
Ordnance helped to create more stable and safe positions for women along with
other organizations and unions.
During the period of World War I when women were beginning to see their self
worth, many women reformers emerged. Mary Van Kleeck and Mary Anderson were just
two of the many that impacted the lives of many women. These two women were
chosen by the Chief of Ordnance to be the principal advisors on the ordnance
matters for women. Kleeck lectured on industries and disorders within
corporations and factories throughout much of 1917 and 1918. By June of 1917 she
had also published three books on the matter. In response to the new range of
female employment the Labor Department also created the Women in Industry
Service (WIS) which was directed by Kleeck. She believed that the war created a
great potential for interesting new order in the industry and society (Greenwald
89). As a reformer Kleeck inspected many arsenals and consulted government
officials and experts to decide what should be changed. Although her goals did
not have any legal force, this was the first time the federal government had
taken a stand on improving working conditions for women. Her fellow reformer
Mary Anderson believed that wage earners and middle class reformers should work
together to change working conditions (Greenwald 67). To do her job, Anderson
took many different positions doing many different jobs in order to gain much
work experience. By the end of WWI she herself had worked in at least 19
different jobs. From her experience she expected the government to launch a
program of social and economic regulation to benefit women workers. Many
reformers believed in wise management of jobs, personal and social efficiency,
fair wages and decent conditions. Reformers saw women as substitutes for men
during the war and saw this time as an opportunity to expand and promote women?s
postwar status (Greenwald 69). Many reformers also believed that women should be
given some advanced training and further schooling equal to that of men so that
they could properly substitute for them. Reformers were eager to get women in to
promising and more advantageous ?men?s? jobs. The Women?s Branch of
Ordnance Department even introduced ways to train women (Greenwald 70). At the
end of 1918, the Women?s Branch had expanded into many district offices. These
offices would test jobs for women, and whatever job by actual trial that the
Women?s Ordnance officer could do she sanctioned for other women. This
introduced people to a host of many new job opportunities that women were
capable of fulfilling. The Women?s Branch succeeded in creating 8-hour days
for many new companies and also tried for equal wages. This policy of equal
wages although was the most difficult to achieve during the war because fair
wages were given by employers who had highly profitable contracts, but those
with a fixed sums and contracts were not able to afford it (Greenwald 77). This
was an important factor although, and the discrepancy between men?s and women?s
wages was unacceptable. For example, in the Rock Island Arsenal the maximum rate
of pay for a skilled female was $3.20/day, while that of a minimum male starting
position was $3.68/day.
One of the most favorable and important industries during World War I was
railroad work. This was because of the federal control of railroads taken during
the war to secure transportation problems that may arise. In order to make sure
they would have no problems with workers, the government created a nationwide
standard of 8-hour days, decent wages, well designed grievance procedures and a
senior system for regional promotions and lay-off within all rails. The war
emergency provided a stimulus for national policy of equal work for equal pay
and it allowed women to begin to gain entrance into uncommon employment and
occupational advances within railroad labor. This is one of the many reasons the
rail attracted women workers.
After the signing of the Armistice in November 1918, women employed in
railway offices, yards and shops faced the critical problem of holding on to
their jobs. . The men did not like the idea of women taking over their jobs.
Many of them challenged women and the post-war labor reduction hit women hard.
In many cases the seniority policies of companies was broken and women were laid
off. Unions helped to protect some women and keep their jobs, but as husbands
returned, women reluctantly gave up their jobs and returned home much of the
time. One agency which was greatly changed was the telephone company in which
the women took many measures to keep their jobs and succeeded by cutting off
communication weeks at a time and bringing the company to its knees. Although
many women were fired when the war terminated, they had ultimately found a new
sense of self worth for themselves and a greater awareness of what they could
accomplish. In essence, the war gave an opportunity for women to realize what
they were capable of and gave many of them much work experience equal to that of
men?s. As a result of the war, women no longer accepted degraded job
opportunities and unfair wages. Through the creation of Labor Organizations and
Unions they sought to protect their rights. Women took the outbreak of the war
to its full potential, opening as many doors for themselves as they could and
proving what they could accomplish. Through their great accomplishments and the
realization of corporations of how much they were needed, women in America
created a new image of themselves. The opportunities given to women as a result
of the war allowed them to think more freely and expand their horizons. After
the war ended, many had to give up their jobs, but those who worked did not
return to the old standards. For the first time, the federal government
recognized the rights of women in the work force and their importance in times
of need.