4.1.1 What is metaphor in the on-line world
Since the current study deals with metaphors of the on-line world, a definition of metaphor from the Internet can help define the topic of study. According to The Metaphor Home Page, metaphor can be defined as "any structured juxtaposition of two conceptual domains. Metaphor thus encompasses language, cinema, theatre, music, and even dance, etc., in fact any domain that one can sensibly describe in a structured semantic form". To interpret this definition for purposes of the paper, a metaphor is an unusual pairing of two elements that creates a new meaning that neither element had alone, thus creating a whole new conceptual expression.
For example, in the verbal metaphor illustratively used by Max Black, MAN IS WOLF, the reader is asked to think of the man in terms of the barbaric and beastly nature of a wolf. Man can be seen as possessing some of the qualities of a wolf, but not all of them. The transference of properties is relative to the context and one cannot assume that man is exactly the same as a wolf, but somehow similar. The context should make apparent which qualities the sender of the metaphor wishes the audience to transfer to the primary subject, man. If framed in a business context, perhaps the man could be viewed as cunning, whereas in a dating situation, MAN IS WOLF could evoke images of a wolf scouting for prey.
Whatever the metaphor, two elements, or subjects, are unusually paired so that one subject is conceived in terms of the second. The metaphor may be presented in images, or may even require the addition of words to convey its meaning. Regardless, some properties or characteristics of the secondary subject are transferred to the first and a whole new concept formed. The slight tension of the pairing will increase the viewer/reader’s need to reconcile the juxtaposition and result in the comprehension of the metaphor. The viewer/reader will understand the pairing of the two subjects in a new and completely different light than if the two subjects were presented independently. The need to reconcile this tension may require more active involvement from the viewer/reader.
Thus, metaphor has implications for advertising, as active audiences are highly desirable and interpret the advertising message in a more meaningful and personal way. When more time is spent reading, viewing, and interpreting a message, the meaning is more internalized. Therefore, advertising seeks to involve the consumer so that he or she will internalize the message that product X is the best for cleaning carpets, etc. Web advertising also attempts to draw in the viewer/reader to spend more time with the message. The inherent fast-paced nature of Internet surfing can leave a consumer’s mind cluttered with many messages and products vying for attention. If a consumer could interact with the advertising message, such as clicking the mouse button on an advertisement’s words or images, the message has a higher likelihood of being more internally processed. The more time the consumer spends with the advertisement, the better for the advertiser.
The on-line metaphors under examination for the purposes of this study will primarily be concerned with language (written text), visual images (photos, hand or computer drawn images, video, or digital animation), and the combination of the two.
Thus an advertisement containing words, visual images, or both will be considered in exploring metaphor. With this in mind, metaphors have been classified to distinguish differences in the usage of metaphor in advertising (Forceville). In this study of metaphor usage in on-line advertising, three types of metaphor, drawn from Forceville’s work, have been defined as follows. Verbal metaphors are textual written language used to convey meaning of the first subject. Pictorial metaphors use images for the first element, without words or any text accompanying the visual image. A combination of images and words as the primary subject will result in a verbo-pictorial metaphor being observed. Some verbopictorial metaphors may require both the image and the text to support each other for clear understanding while others may not need the assistance of the other to be understood, but both may still be presented for greater clarity. Regardless, if the first subject contains both words and images, it shall be considered a verbo-pictorial metaphor.
For example, you can find a pictorial metaphor that uses only visual images to convey the meaning of the primary subject. The musical notes with the sound waves radiating from the stems implies someone is hearing or listening to music. There is found beside certain musical compact discs for sale at the Music Boulevard web site. This pictorial metaphor indicates that, when clicked with the mouse, music will play. This image is only located beside those CD’s that have audio available for listening on-line.
An example of a verbal metaphor can be found at http://www.marthastewart.com. The words, "Guest Book Sign-In," are completely textual and have no accompanying images of any kind. This phrase, as the primary subject, leads the web surfer to actually sign-in and make comments as one would do in the real world. This virtual guest book is a prime example of a verbal metaphor on-line.
Lastly, verbo-pictorial metaphors combine both text and images in the primarysubject that work collectively to aid the viewer. The Virtual Vineyards web site, locatedat http://www.virtualvin.com, displays an example of this type of metaphor. The Wine Shop is just one of the many departments in the on-line store of Virtual Vineyards, presented by a bottle and glass of wine paired with the words, "Shop for Wine." The web surfer uses the mouse to click upon this primary subject and is swept away to the wine shop. The combination of the verbal and visual elements clarifies the meaning of this virtual shopping experience. [8, p.20-27]
4.1.2 Objectives of the use of metaphors in advertising
There are four primary objectives of this research.
First, the study seeks to develop a coding method for metaphor to be used in a content analysis of corporate web sites. Classifications of metaphor will be set forth in a hierarchical fashion that will help the researcher to clearly identify a metaphor and to distinguish one type of metaphor from another. These classifications will be developed from both literature and observation.
Secondly, the study will collect data from the observation of commercial web sites, as defined earlier. Metaphors from these web sites will be thoroughly explored and examined.
Third, the observed metaphors will be coded and counted according to the codebook developed through achievement of the first objective of the study. The sample will provide information on the frequency of certain types of metaphors and help to identify the most commonly used types of metaphor. Metaphors used in shopping and non-shopping sites will be compared and contrasted to examine differences and influences on group membership. Coding and analyzing the collected data will be done through the computer program SPSS, Statistical Program for Social Sciences.
Lastly, with the knowledge from the research results, any significant findings will be presented and differences among the two groups, shopping and non-shopping web sites, will be discussed. The conclusions will make suggestions for the application of metaphor in online advertising and its further uses. The results should answer the following questions:
1). What is the most common type of metaphor used in on-line advertising in 1998?
2). Is there a difference between metaphor usage in shopping versus non-shopping web sites?
3). What are the influencing factors that account for these differences? [23]
4.2 Metaphor in on-line advertising
In observing metaphors in on-line advertising, key terminology must be defined to clearly identify metaphors within a limited framework. The current study’s framework is metaphors in on-line advertising. Advertising on the World Wide Web can take several forms, from commercial web sites designed specifically for promotional purposes to banner ads, small banner-shaped areas used for ad space as in traditional media. However, this study is focusing on commercial web sites that advertise, promote, and market goods and services. The Internet’s World Wide Web was used to view these commercial web sites, which are web presentations that contain several pages usually arranged in a hierarchy. The starting page is commonly referred to as the home page, containing many hyperlinks. These links, when text, are usually blue in color and underlined as well. When a mouse is used to click on these hyperlinks, the web surfer loads another web page, either contained within the same web presentation or another page from a separate web presentation.
Commercial web sites will be defined as web presentations that market, promote, and/or sell goods or services for a sponsoring corporation. The web address of the home page will usually end in ".com," meaning commercial. Most web addresses, or also contain the corporation’s name, as in http://www.gap.com/, an example of the web address for the clothing company, The Gap. Two types of commercial web sites will be examined, shopping and non-shopping sites. The web sites that actually sell products or services via the Internet will be classified as shopping sites. Other web sites that simply promote goods and services not for sale on-line but for sale only in tradition retail outlets will be classified as non-shopping sites. [31, p.38-40]
4.2.1 Visual metaphors in advertising
Visual metaphor scholars, often unhappy with the literary perspective, have begun to develop theories of their own. As discussed earlier, Indurkhya’s studies attempt to "develop unifying accounts of metaphor that can apply to verbal and nonverbal contexts". Indurkhya’s semantic transference uses new terminology that could apply to both verbal and nonverbal metaphors, both in description and explanation of the function of metaphors. Van Noppen summarizes Indurkhya’s theory: "Metaphor is the description of a target domain in terms of a source domain; a transfer from one domain to another, characterized by different functions which condition the interpretation of metaphoric utterances". He is considered one of the few authors developing a new context that is not strictly literary, but one that is cross-categorizeable to verbal and nonverbal metaphor analysis. Also, some of Black’s basic tenants are still at work, especially those of transference or mapping features of one ‘subject’ onto the other. The interaction of the two elements or ‘domains’ is still the key to understanding how metaphor works.
Even literary theorists recognize that metaphors do not require language to transfer meaning from one subject to another. Kittay writes, " In exploring metaphor as a phenomenon of language, I do not mean to claim that metaphor is found only in language nor that metaphor is merely linguistic. We can have metaphor in dance, in painting, in music, in film, or in any other expressive medium".
Rudolf Arnheim, in his studies of visual perception, finds metaphor in the expressive medium of visual art. In his discussion of symbolism in art, he recognizes that metaphor unites "practically disparate objects" and "derives from and relies on the universal and spontaneous way of approaching the world of experience".
The metaphorical communication has become a part of how meaning is conveyed in our messages to one another. Metaphor, even in art, has passed down meaning from generation to generation and thus developed a socially accepted norm of metaphorical expression.
Leiss, Kline, and Jhally have used metaphor to study social communication in advertising. They suggest that metaphors in advertisements have become a powerful and commonly used strategy. "Metaphor is the very heart of the basic communication form used in advertising". Many other researchers share this view as they seek to explain the effects of metaphor use in advertising.
The study of metaphor in advertising has been used to gain insight about consumer behavior. Zaltman’s Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET) was a research tool developed to define and describe the metaphors that drive consumer behavior with implications for copy testing. Metaphors are relevant to the study of advertising because metaphors are "laden with symbols and imagery that might be used creatively in implementing decisions that will animate or bring appropriate reasoning processes and mental models to life.
Stern also is an advocate of studying symbolism along with metaphor in advertising. Stern believes that advertising is a metaphorical art, much like poetry. She is more interested in verbo-pictorial metaphors (in Forceville’s terms) than strictly verbal metaphors since "words alone cannot convey the burden of meaning". Print, television, and even the Internet’s World Wide Web may be more appropriate media as they are not limited to verbal communication. Stern’s work, although concerned with visual metaphors, still concerns the integration of verbal elements.
Charles Forceville tries to look at previous metaphor literature in hopes of developing a theory of pictorial metaphor in advertising, but notes that most of the literature on metaphor is primarily on verbal metaphors (Forceville, 4). Forceville uses the cognitive perspective from Black’s interaction theory and extends that to what he calls a pictorial theory of metaphor in advertising. "Metaphor occurs first of all on the level of cognition, and can manifest itself on the pictorial as well as the verbal level – and possibly in yet other ways". Forceville has done content analyses of advertisements to locate four distinct types of pictorial metaphors in advertising: (1) Pictorial metaphors with one pictorially present term, (2) Pictorial metaphors with two pictorially present terms, (3) Pictorial similes, and (4) Verbo-pictorial metaphors.
Homer and Kahle propose a social adaptation explanation of visual metaphors, where "problems are solved by rearranging what we have always known….combined in such a way as to evoke something else". Socially accepted norms are rearranged by juxtaposing two elements that interact and create tension. Homer & Kahle specifically studied surrealistic images, but their definition of surrealistic content is related to metaphor and can be discussed along with metaphor studies. Similar to metaphor, they describe the effects of surrealism: "By juxtaposing unrelated objects, they revealed unexpected affinities between different objects". They investigated the effects of metaphor use on persuasion, finding that ads incorporating surrealistic content produced greater recall and purchase intent than other more traditional advertisements.
Similarly, Fazio, Zanna, and Cooper have found that direct experience may affect attitude formation by altering the way in which the available information is processed (Fazio et al, 51). Since metaphors in consumer advertising require the consumer to become more actively involved and experience one thing in terms of another, advertising using metaphors may affect attitude formation towards a product or brand. At the very least, the active involvement stimulated by metaphors will alter the way in which the information is processed. [14]
4.2.2 Virtual metaphors of the Web
Metaphors are one way to promote interactivity. Computer design of a graphical user interface was first to utilize metaphors to encourage interactivity of the computer user. With a Macintosh windows operating system and a mouse, early computer users pointed and clicked to interacted with their virtual world. Tim Rohrer speaks of ‘virtual’ metaphors in computer interface design, such as the virtual desktop of the Apple Macintosh OS. "In the DESKTOP metaphor, the computer screen is a virtual ‘desktop’ with electronic ‘folders,’ ‘documents,’ ‘disk icons’ and a ‘trash can’ which are patterned after the physical objects in the physical office".
In the late twentieth century, metaphors in the on-line world are combining ideas from literary and pictorial metaphors, as well as those from early computer interface design, into virtual metaphors. Many graphic icons use symbolism, pictographs, and other elements from semiotics along with linguistic metaphor in hopes of catching the eye of a Web surfer. On-line metaphors are often images, while others are text, and still others combine both text and images. These computerized metaphors present the viewer with a semblance of the actual physical world on their computer screen. For example, Security First Network Bank, the first financial services institution to offer full-service banking on the Internet, uses on-line metaphors. "The company uses the graphic metaphor of a conventional bank to communicate and interact with potential and existing customers, including an electronic inquiries desk, electronic brochures for general information, and electronic tellers to deal with routine transactions".
On-line metaphors should entice the computer user to interact with the icons or images in a way that is intuitive. These images should represent closely their real-world counterparts and if performing a function, they should be clear as to what function it is they perform. Rohrer agrees with this assumption, first presented by Collins, when he states that "metaphors are most intuitive to users when they are fairly literal". As a marketer, the goal is to have consumers become more interactive with your message and your products. Thus leading to purchases and eventually repeat purchases. The more intuitive this process is, the more likely the advertiser can convert the casual web surfer to a loyal customer. To accomplish this goal on-line, the web site should hold the visitor’s attention, be readable, and be visually appealing as well as inform.