4. messenger – курьер, разносчик
5. due to – обусловлен, благодаря, из-за
THE FACULTY OF GEOGRAPHY
A Country Across the Channel
The British Isles, which include Great Britain, Ireland and a lot of smaller islands, are situated off the north western coast of Europe and once formed part of that continent. They became islands when they were separated from it. The separation took place thousands of years ago, after the last Ice Age, when the ice melted, the level of the oceans rose and drowned the low-lying coastlands.
Politically the British Isles are divided into two countries —the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Irish Republic or Eire. All in all there are over 5,000 islands in the system of the British Isles which lie on the continental shelf, the zone of shallow water surrounding at present the continent and resembling a shelf above the deep water of the oceans.
From the European continent the British Isles are separated by the English Channel and the North Sea. The English Channel, in its widest part in the west is 220 km wide, and in the narrowest, what is called the Strait of Dover, only 32 km. So, the islands have had an easy and mainly profitable contact with mainland Europe. In the past there were a number of schemes how to connect the two coasts. In 1994 the dream came true: the construction of the two-rail tunnel was completed and it was opened for public use.
The most important sea routes pass through the English Channel and the North Sea linking Europe with the Americas and other continents. The advantageous geographical position of Great Britain created favourable conditions for the development of shipping, trade and the economy as a whole.
However, the true value of Britain's geographical position has not always been obvious. Indeed, it clearly emerged in the late 15th and 16th centuries, a period which saw the discovery of America and the opening of the sea route round the Cape of Good Hope to the Far East. Before this time European civilization had been centred in the-Mediterranean lands. The British Isles, although developing slowly, were on the margins of this civilization. With the discovery of the Americas the British Isles became an intermediary between Europe and the New World.
From the 16th century onwards, the wealth and influence of Great Britain increased rapidly. With the acquisition of overseas colonies and the establishment of an empire she attained the status of a world power. Her position as such was emphasized by the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, which was based on her resources of coal and iron and on the markets she had established throughout the world. By Victorian times (1837-1901) Great Britain had become the richest country in the world, the first great modern industrial and capitalist society.
During the 20th century Britain has lost this position and her economy has faced increasing problems, especially with the collapse of the empire. The problems of supporting her population (57 million) on such a small land area (244,100 sq km) are also obvious. At the same time, however, it is important to remember that Britain, with the benefits of North Sea oil production, is still one of the leading industrial and trading countries in the world.
The British Isles in general, but especially England, form one of the most densely peopled areas in the world. Archaeologists and historians have demonstrated that the present-day inhabitants of Britain and Ireland are largely the descendants of settlers and traders from western Europe, who came to these islands in a series of invasions, from about 2500 B.C. down to the Norman Conquest of 1066. The growth of population in Britain reflects, to a large extent, the economic changes. The basic population distribution of the 20th century had been established by the Industrial Revolution and the increase in population of the 19th century.
The British Isles, apart from Great Britain and Ireland, the two largest islands, include several other important islands and islands known as the Hebrides. They are groups of islands. Off the northwestern divided into the Inner and Outer Hebrides, coast of Great Britain there is a group of They are separated from each other by the Sea of the Hebrides and the Little Minch. The main occupation of people here is farming combined with fishing.
Off the northern coast of Scotland, separated from the mainland by the stormy Pentland Firth are the Orkney Islands, comprising about a hundred islands. Most of the people (about 20,000) are engaged in dairy and poultry farming. Bacon, cheese and eggs are exported to Central Scotland.
The Shetland Islands are situated about 70 miles north of the Orkneys. They provide thin poor soils suitable only for rough pasture. The population (18,000) is actively engaged in herring-fishing. Apart from fish, the only exports from the islands are Shetland ponies and lace knitted from the wool of local sheep.
In the middle of the Irish Sea there is the Isle of Man (571 sq km). The island is administered by its own Manx Parliament and has a population of about 50,000 chiefly engaged in farming, fishing and tourist trade. The largest settlement is the holiday resort of Douglas (23,000). Another important island in the Irish Sea is Anglesey, situated off the north coast of Wales. Anglesey contains only 52,000 people, and more of the working population are now engaged in industry than in fishing and agriculture. This is due partly to an increase in the tourist trade and partly to the introduction of several new industries, for example, the construction and operation of the nuclear power station at Wylfa.
The Isle of Wight is in the English Channel. It is diamond-shaped, 40 km from west to east, and about half as much from north to south. The Isle of Wight lies across the southern end of Southampton Water, and is separated from the mainland by the Solent. With its sunny beaches and pleasant varied countryside, the island forms one of the most important tourist resorts. It is linked to London by ferry and rail services. Also lying in the English Channel off the extreme south-western coast of Great Britain is a tiny group of the Isles of Scilly, another resort area.
The Channel Islands lie to the southwest on the French side of the English Channel. They are known to the French as the Isles Normandes. The Channel Islands form an archipelago, separated by shallow waters from northern France. As part of the Duchy of Normandy, they have been attached to the English Crown since the Norman Conquest (1066). The total area of the islands is only 194 sq km, but the population is over 130,000 what results in high density of population — 686 per sq km. In summer the population increases greatly by holiday-makers.
The chief islands of the group are Jersey and Guernsey. In rural areas many of the people speak a French-Norman dialect, but the official languages are English and French.
The British Isles arc known for their greatly indented coastline. Therefore there are many bays and harbours, peninsulas and capes on the coast, which were formed as a result of the raising and submerging of the land surface in the process of the geological development of the islands. Due to its extreme indentity the coastline of Great Britain, despite its relatively modest size, is 8,000 km long. Very much indented is the western coast, especially the coasts of Scotland and Wales.
The east coast is less lofty and more regular than the west coast, and the coastal lowlands are flooded frequently.
Hardly has anything been more important in British history than the fact that Great Britain is an island. Living on islands, and therefore near the- sea, the inhabitants naturally grew into a nation of sailors. Their love of the sea led them to become navigators and discoverers of new lands in many parts of the globe.
The capital of the country, London, is an enormous city. Its name is probably derived from the Celtic Llyn, a pool or lake (the River Thames at an earlier period expanded into a considerable lake — the part immediately below London Bridge is still “the Pool”), and din wdun, a hill, fort, or place of strength. The “hill” may have been that on which St.Paul's now stands, or Cornhill.
When the Romans conquered Llyndun they Latinised the name as Londinium. Great military roads radiated from the city to various parts of Britain, and distances were measured from the lapis milliaris (mile-stone) in the Forum of Agricola, in the heart of the town. The stone, now known as the London Stone, may still be seen in the wall of St.Swithin’s Church, Cannon Street.
Under the Saxons London became the metropolis of the kingdom of Essex. The city was constituted by Alfred the Great the capital of England, York and Winchester having previously enjoyed that dignity in succession — the former under the Romans, the latter under the Saxons. In 994, the first bridge accross the Thames was built.
The White Tower, in the Tower of London, was erected by William I in 1078, on the site of the Roman fort already noticed. The same king granted a charter to the city confirming the burghers in the rights enjoyed by them under Edward the Confessor. King John granted the citizens several charters, and in Magna Charta (1215) it was expressly provided that London should have all its ancient privileges and customs.
About 7 million people live in Greater London. The oldest part of London is the “City”. Centuries ago, there was a high wall all round the City of London. Places like Soho and Chelsea were small villages outside the City. Now they are part of Central London. There are always crowds of tourists in London. They visit London’s many sights. Buckingham Palace and Westminster Abbey are two of the favourite ones. London is great for shopping. There are lots of big department stores, like the famous Harrods and Selfridges. People from many different countries live in London today, and their way of life has given London a new “face”. If you want to see the latest ideas in fashion, go and look at the shops in the King’s Road.
THE FACULTY OF PHYSICAL CULTURE
Sports and Recreation
"If you watch a game, it's fun. If you play it, it's recreation. If you -work at it, it's golf." (Bob Hope)
All-American Sports?
In 1911, the American writer Ambrose Bierce defined Monday as "in Christian countries, the day after the baseball game." Times have changed and countries, too. In the U.S. of today, football is the most popular spectator sport. Baseball is now in second place among the sports people most like to watch. In Japan, it is the most popular. Both baseball and football are, or course, American developments of sports played in England. But baseball does not come from cricket, as many people think. Baseball comes from baseball. As early as 1700, an English churchman in Kent complained of baseball being played on Sundays. And illustrations of the time make it clear that this baseball was the baseball now called "the American game." Baseball is still very popular in the U.S. as an informal, neighbourhood sport. More than one American remembers the time when he or she hit a baseball through a neighbour’s window (nice neighbours return the ball...).
What makes football in the U.S. so different from its European cousins, rugby and soccer, is not just the size, speed, and strength of its players. Rather, it is the most "scientific" of all outdoor team sports. Specific rules state what each player in each position may and may not do, and when. There are hundreds of possible "plays" (or moves) for teams on offence and defence. Because of this, football has been called "an open-air chess game disguised as warfare." Those who don't understand the countless rules and the many possibilities for plays miss most of the game. They are like people who, watching a chess game for the first time, conclude that the purpose is to knock out as many pieces as possible. One reason for the growing popularity of American football is that games are more often shown on TV in more nations. Another is that the rules of the game are beginning to be better understood.
Baseball and football have the reputation of being “typically American” team sports. This is ironic because the two most popular participant sports in the world today are indeed American in origin - basketball and volleyball. The first basketball game was played in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1891. It was invented at a YMCA there as a game that would fill the empty period between the football season (autumn) and the baseball season (spring and summer). Volleyball was also first played in Massachusetts, and also at a YMCA, this one in Holyoke, in 1895. During the First and Second World Wars, American soldiers took volleyball with them overseas and helped to make it popular. Today, of course, both basketball and volleyball are played everywhere by men and women of all ages. They are especially popular as school sports.
Professional and collegiate basketball games in the U.S. attract large numbers of fans (57.8 million spectators in 1991). Most of the important games are televised live. Basketball's growth in the last few years outside the U.S. has been startling. In 1991 it was already the world’s fastest growing spectator sport. Then in 1992, the U.S. “Dream Team” - Michael Jordan and “Magic” Johnson and friends - appeared at the Olympics in Spain. While dazzling and charming viewers around the world they also brought a new popularity to the sport. In the U.S., in 1992, fully 90 percent of all professional NBA (National Basketball Association) games were sold out. And today, NBA games are shown on TV in over 90 countries around the world.
There is an enormous amount of live broadcasting of all different types of sports events, professional and amateur, at state, national, and international levels. Americans are used to having baseball and basketball, college and professional football games, golf, tennis, and auto racing, swimming meets, and the Olympics carried live and at full length. In season, college football games are shown live all day Saturday. On Sundays, there are live television broadcasts of the professional teams, and if that weren't enough, there's also a game on Monday night. Usually one or two games are broadcast throughout the land, and many others only to regions where the teams have most of their fans. If all seats are sold out for a game, it can often be seen in that city "live" on TV, too. Surprisingly, this live broadcasting of sports events has not only increased interest in the sports, it has also increased actual attendance at the stadiums or arenas.
Hockey (ice hockey, that is, the other kind is still a minor sport in the U.S.), baseball, football, and basketball are the "four major sports." Their seasons now often overlap. Some football games are still being played in January in the snow and ice. Pre-season baseball games start in warm, sunny regions like Florida and Arizona about the same time. In the fall of the year, all four come together. Some people think that having four very popular sports at the same time is “a bit much.” But they shouldn't bother the rest of us, please, during the games.
Americans are frequently told that the other football (which they call soccer) is, after all, the most popular spectator sport in the world. And how does it fare in the U.S.? Despite the 1994 World Cup being held in the United States, soccer remains, at least as a professional sport, distinctly minor. By contrast, it has become quite popular as a school sport. It is not the notorious soccer hooliganism that has hurt it as a professional sport. Rather it does not compete well in American eyes with the American favourite four. All is not lost yet: in the first women's soccer world championship in China in 1991, the United States team won.
There are many other sports and sports activities in America which attract millions of active participants. Among them are golf, swimming, tennis, marathons, track and field, bowling, archery, skiing, skating, squash and badminton, rowing and sailing, weight lifting, boxing, and wrestling. Around 40 percent of all Americans take part in some athletic activity once a day. And 1990 statistics show that the six favorite participatory sports activities for all Americans are, in order, exercise walking, swimming, bicycle riding, fishing (fresh water), camping, and bowling.
The question remains why so many sports are so popular in the United States. One reason may be that the variety and size of America and the different climates found in it have provided Americans with large choice of (summer and winter) sports. In addition, public sports facilities have always been available in great number for participants, even in sports such as golf, tennis, or skating. The fact that the average high school, too, offers its students a great variety of sports, often including rowing, tennis, wrestling, and golf may have contributed to the wide and varied interest and participation of Americans in sports. This, in turn, may explain why Americans have traditionally done well internationally in many of these sports.
Another reason might be that Americans like competition, by teams or as individuals, of any type. It's the challenge, some say. Others point out that American schools and colleges follow the tradition of all English-speaking societies in using sports activities as a way of teaching "social values." Among these are teamwork, sportsmanship (when they win, American players are expected to say, "well, we were just lucky"), and persistence (not quitting "when the going gets rough"). As a result, being intelligent and being good in sports are seen as things that can go together and, as an ideal, should. While there are colleges where sports seem to be dominant, there are many others, which have excellent academic reputations and are also good in sports. Stanford, UCLA, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Yale are among them.