Существует также метод контент-анализа, который предназначен для анализа письменных сочинений, групповых дискуссий и других вербальных реакций, причем анализ производится по таким параметрам, как сложность мышления, оценочная последовательность мышления и знание предмета.
Для оценки концептуальных переменных, имеющих отношение к установкам, используются также измерения временных и физиологических показателей. Например, для изучения доступности и силы установок измеряется время, которое необходимо людям для того, чтобы сообщить о своем согласии или несогласии с краткими установочными высказываниями.
Измерение физиологических показателей, таких как частота сердцебиения и гальванические кожные реакции (связанные с потоотделением), уже давно используется при исследовании эмоций и аффективных компонентов установок. Проводя традиционные процедуры измерения физиологических показателей, можно достоверно зарегистрировать изменения интенсивности чувств и эмоций, но такие данные не позволяют судить о том, какие установки отражают эти эмоции — позитивные или негативные. Тем не менее не так давно исследователи начали изучать весьма специфические физиологические реакции на социальные стимулы и предполагают, что эти реакции могут отражать фактическую ориентацию установок человека по отношению к социальному стимулу, однако эта гипотеза требует дальнейшей проверки. Например, в исследованиях по одной тщательно разработанной программе получены данные наблюдений, которые говорят о том, что когда люди слушают и обдумывают убеждающее сообщение, у них происходят небольшие, но поддающиеся измерению изменения активности лицевых мускулов, находящихся вокруг рта (Cacioppo and Petty, 1987). Известно, что эти изменения имеют различный характер для случаев, когда реципиент возражает против доводов, приведенных в сообщении, и когда это сообщение вызывает когнитивные реакции согласия.
В целом можно сказать, что в работах, посвященных исследованию изменения установок и социального влияния, применяется множество самых разнообразных измерительных методик, причем некоторые подходы разработаны лучше, чем другие.
426
Abelson. R. P., and Prentice, D. A. (1989). Beliefs as possessions: A functional perspective. In A. R. Pratkanis, S. J. Breckler, and A. G. Green-wald (Eds.), Attitude structure and function (pp. 361-381). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Adler.R.P., Lesser, G.S., Meringofl, L. K., Robertson, T.S., and Ward.S. (1980). The effects of television advertising on children. Lexington, MA: D. С Heath.
Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswick, E., Levin-son., D.J., and Sanford,R.N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper.
Ajzen, I., and Fishbein, Af. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Allen, V.L.. and Wilder, D. A. (1980). Impact of group consensus and social support on stimulus meaning: Mediation of conformity by cognitive restructuring. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1116-1124.
Allport.G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Altheide, D. L., and Johnson, J. M. (1977). Counting souls: A study of counseling at evangelical crusades. Pacific Sociological Review, 20, 323-348.
Altman, D. G., Slater, M. D., Albright, C. L., and Maccoby, N. (1987). How an unhealthy product is sold: Cigarette advertising in magazines, 1960-1985. Journal of Communications, 37, 95-106.
Andersen, S. M., and Zimbardo, P. G. (1984). On resisting social influence. Cultic Studies Journal, 1, 196-219.
Anderson, С A., Lepper, M. R., and Ross. L. (1980). Perseverance of social theories: The role of explanation in the persistence of discredited information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1037-1049.
Anderson, N. H., and Hubert, S. (1963). Effects of concomitant verbal recall on order effects in personality impression formation. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1, 379-391.
Andrews, L. B. (1984). Exhibit A: Language. Psychology Today, Feb., 28-33.
Apple, W., Streeter, L.A., and Krauss.R.M. (1979). Effects of pitch and speech rate on personal attributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 715-727.
Aronson, E. (1969). The theory of cognitive dissonance: A current perspective. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (vol. 4, pp. 1-34). New York: Academic Press.
Aronson, E. (1991). How to change behavior. In R. С Curtis and G. Stricke (Eds.), How people change: Inside and outside therapy. New York: Plenum
Aronson, E., and Carlsmith, J. M. (1968). Experimentation in social psychology In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (2d ed., Vol. 2, pp. 1-79). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Aronson, E., Ellsworth, P. C., Carlsmith, J. Al, and Gonzales, Al H. (1990) Methods of research in social psychology (2d ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Asch, J., and Shore, В. М. (1975). Conservation behavior as the outcome of environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 6, 25-33.
Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgements. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership, and men. Pittsburg, PA: Carnegie Press.
Asch, S. E. (1952). Social psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Atkin, С. К. (1979). Research evidence on mass mediated health communication campaigns. In D. Nimmo (Ed.), Communication yearbook 3. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Atkin. С. К. (1980). Effects of the mass media. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Axsom, D. (1989). Cognitive dissonance and behavior change in psychotherapy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 234-252.
Axsom, D., Yates, S., and Chaiken, S. (1987). Audience response as a heuristic cue in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 30-40.
Bailey, F. L. (1985). To be atrial lawyer. New York: Wiley.
Baker, A. L., and Wilson, P. H. (1985). Cognitive-behavior therapy for depression: The effects of booster sessions on relapse. Behavior Therapy, 16,335-344.
Bales, R. F. (1958). Task roles and social roles in problem-solving groups. In E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (3d ed., pp. 437-447). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models' reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 589-595.
427
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social-cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1990). Mechanisms of moral disengagement in terrorism. In W. Reich (Ed.), Origins of terrorism: Psychologies, ideologies, theologies, states of mind (pp. 161-191). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., and Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., and Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 3-11.
Bargh, 1. A., and Pietromonaco, P. (1982). Automatic information processing and social perception: The influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 437-449.
Barker, E. (1984). The making of a Moonie: Choice or brainwashing. Oxford, England: Basil Black-well.
Baron, R. A., and Byrne, D. (1981). Social psychology: Understanding human interaction (3d ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Barthe, D. C, and Hammen, С L. (1981). The attri-butional model of depression: A naturalistic extension. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 53-58.
Basow, S. A. (1986). Gender stereotypes: Traditions and alternatives (2d ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/ Cole.
Batson, C. D. (1975). Rational processing or rationalization? The effect of disconfirming information on a stated religious belief. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 176-184.
Batson, CD., Cochran, P. J., Biederman, M. F., Blosser, J. L„ Ryan, M. J., and Vogt, B. (1978). Failure to help when in a hurry: Callousness or conflict? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 97-101.
Baumeister, R. F. (1982). A self-presentational view of social phenomena. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 3-26.
Baumeister, R. F., and Tice, D. M. (1984). Role of self-presentation and choice in cognitive dissonance under forced compliance: Necessary or sufficient causes? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 5-13.
Baumrind, D. (1964). Some thoughts on the ethics of research after reading Milgram's Behavioral Study of Obedience. American Psychologist, 19, 421-423.
Baumrind, D. (1985). Research using intentional deception: Ethical issues revisited. American Psychologist, 40, 165-174.
Beaman, A. L., Cole, С M., Preston, M., Klentz, В., and Steblay, N. M. (1983). Fifteen years of foot-in-the-door research: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 181-196.
Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press.
Becker, L. В., McCombs, M. E., and McLeod, J. M. (1975). The development of political cognitions. In S. H. Chaffee (Ed.), Political communication: Issues and strategies for research (pp. 21-63). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Bedau, H., and Radelet, M. (1987). Miscarriages of justice in potentially capital cases. Stanford Law Review, 40, 21-179.
Beebe, S. A. (1974). Eye contact: A nonverbal determinant of speaker credibility. The Speech Teacher, 23, 21-25.
Bell, В. Е., and Loftus, E.F. (1989). Trivial persuasion in the courtroom: The power of (a few) minor details. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 669-679.
Belloc, N. В., and Brestow, L. (1972). Relationship of physical health status and family practice. Preventive Medicine, 1,409-421.
Bern, D.J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (vol. 6, pp. 1-62). New York: Academic Press.
Bern, D. ]., and McConnell, H. K. (1970). Testing the self-perception explanation of dissonance phenomena: On the salience of premanipulation attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14, 23-31.
Bettinghaus, E. P. (1980). Persuasive communication (3d ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Blum, A. (1989). The targeting of minority groups by the tobacco industry. In L. A. Jones (Ed.), Minorities and cancer (pp. 153-162). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Bornstein, R. F., Leone, D. R., and Galley, D. J. (1987). The generalizability of subliminal mere exposure effects: Influence of stimuli perceived without awareness on social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1070— 1079.
Bowers, K. S. (1984). On being unconsciously influenced and informed. In K. S. Bowers and D. Meichenbaum (Eds.), The unconscious reconsidered. New York: Wiley. Brehm, J. W. (1972). Responses to loss of freedom: A theory of psychological reactance Morris-town, NJ: General Learning Press.
428
Brehm, S. S„ and Smith, T. W. (1986). Social psychological approaches to psychotherapy and behavior change. In S. L. Garfield, and A. E. Be-rgin (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (3d ed., pp. 69-115). New York: Wiley.
Brickman.P., Redfield, J'., Harrison, A. A., and Crandell, R. (1972). Drive and predisposition as factors in the attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 8, 31-44.
BrighamJ. С. (1971). Ethnic stereotypes. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 15-33.
BrighamJ. C, and Bothwell, R. K. (1983). The ability of prospective jurors to estimate the accuracy of eyewitness identifications. Law and Human Behavior, 7, 19-30.
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. London: Pergamon Press.
Broadbent, D. E. (1971). Decision and stress. New York: Academic Press.
Brock, Т. С (1965). Communicator-recipient similarity and decision change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 650-654.
Brown, R. (1974). Further comments on the risky shift. American Psychologist, 29. 468-470.
Brown, R. (1986). Social psychology: The second edition. New York: Free Press.
Bryan J. H., and Test, N.A. (1967). Models and helping: Naturalistic studies in aiding behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 400-407.
Buckhout, R. (1974). Eyewitness testimony. Scientific American, 231, 23-31.
Burger J. (1986). Increasing compliance by improving the deal: The that's-not-all technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 277-283.
BurgoonJ.K., Pfau.M., Parrott.R., Birk, Т., Coker.R., and Burgoon M. (1987). Relational communication, satisfaction, compliance-gaining strategies, and compliance in communication between physicians and patients. Communication Monographs, 54, 307-324.
Burnstein, E., and Vinokur, A. (1973). Testing two classes of theories about group induced shifts in individual choice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 123-137.
Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.
Cacioppo,]. Т., and Petty, R. E. (1979). Effects of message repetition and position on cognitive response, recall, and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 97-109.
Cacioppo, J. Т., and Petty, R. E. (1980). Sex differences in influenceability: Toward specifying the underlying processes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, 651-656.
Cacioppo, J. Т., and Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116-131.
Cacioppo, J. Т., and Petty, R. E. (1987). Stalking rudimentary processes of social influence: A psychophysiological approach. In M. P. Zanna, J. M. Olson, and С. Р. Herman (Eds.), Social influence: The Ontario Symposium (vol. 5, pp. 41-74). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cacioppo, J J., Petty, R.E., and Sidera J.A. (1982). The effects of a salient self-schema on the evaluation of proattitudenal editorials: Top-down versus bottom-up message processing. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 324-338.