обстоятельством, определением, частью сказуемого);
2) по наличию предлога (перед причастием обычно стоят союзы when и while, а перед герундием предлоги on (upon), after, without, by, in, before, with, of, for.
3) по наличию перед герундием притяжательного местоимения или
существительного в притяжательном или общем падеже.
Examples: 1) Forecasting the weather with great accuracy is no easy matter. -
Предсказание погоды с большой точностью – нелегкое дело.
2) The students insisted on being helped in this work. -
Студенты настаивали на том, чтобы им помогли в этой работе.
3) We know of Mendeleyev’s having discovered the Periodic Law. –
Мы знаем, что Менделеев открыл Периодическую систему.
I Define the forms and functions of the gerund and translate the following sentences into Russian.
1) You should avoid changing the direction of your further investigation.
2) Astronomers get a fairly good idea of the chemical composition of the Universe by studying the light from the stars and the sun.
3) Performing the first operation made possible further steps.
4) This effective result is determined by studying the structure of molecules and crystals.
5) Coal is carbonaceous mineral matter that generally is consolidated as a result of being buried in the earth.
6) We must consider trying this idea in our experiment.
7) We cannot agree to testing the new method without being given additional time.
8) I remember having seen an article on this subject.
9) Iron cobalt and nickel are the only metals possessing considerable magnetism at low temperature.
10) Chemical metallurgy includes the metallurgical processes involving chemical change.
II Translate the sentences according to the model.
Model: Henry Becquerel’s having discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity resulted in many investigations in this field – То, что Т. Бенкерель открыл явление радиоактивности, привело ко многим открытиям в этой области.
1. We can speak of this object’s serving as a model of the Earth.
2. His having proved the advantages of the new system is essential.
3. We know of the Earth’s revolving around the sun constantly.
4. Your having carried out this work under this professor supervision helped you greatly in your research.
5. Everybody knows of Newton’s having done research in the field of gravitation.
6. Euclid’s having brought all the known facts about geometry into a logical sequence was very important for the development of geometry.
7. We know of Lobachevsky; s having developed a new geometry different from that of Euclid.
8. He knew of your problem having been discussed at the last conference.
III Complete the sentences using the gerund and word combinations of your own:
1. They have recently succeeded in …
2. They prevented us from …
3. The experiment is worth …
4. This reaction results in …
5. The property largely depends on …
6. He insisted on …
7. It is no use …
8. He stopped …
IV Translate the following sentences and define the underlined forms (participle or gerund) and their functions:
1. Carrying tanks of compressed air we can swim down to the depths of about 300 feet.
2. Carrying tanks of compressed air to the depth of about 300 feet is a difficult task.
3. Obtaining oil from undersea fields is no simple matter.
1. Obtaining oil from undersea fields they used new methods and modern equipment.
2. After having studied hundreds of sections of rocks we may learn the extent of the area over which a bed was deposited.
3. Having reached the depth of 15000 feet they began the examination of the drill cuttings.
4. One method of obtaining salt is allowing water to evaporate.
5. Mapping has made great advance in the last 20 years.
6. Within the last few years, oceanographers have developed a system for forecasting wave conditions in the North Atlantic.
7. The Great Northern Expedition succeeded in exploring and mapping the northern coast of Europe and Asia from the White Sea to Kamchatka.
8. Wind direction may be determined quite simple by watching the movements of clouds, smoke or waves on water surfaces.
9. The purpose of this furnace is changing iron ore into iron.
V Read the text and translate it into Russian. Underline gerund.
Is killing an animal morally equivalent to killing a human being?
Most of us never question assumption that human beings have the right to kill animals. We eat them as food, we use their skins to make coats and shoes, and we test drugs and cosmetics on them. Some of us even hunt animals for sport. With our growing awareness of environmental issues, these activities are becoming less acceptable. Deliberate and cruel killing of animals is not a new phenomenon. The people of the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic have probably undertaken their annual cull of pilot whales for centuries. The cull is a sporting tradition, similar to bullfighting in Spain or fox hunting in Britain. Fewer and fewer people believe that cruelty to animals for sport is justified particularly when the animal is an endangered species. Shooting tigers in India was once a popular sport for gentlemen; it is now illegal. Killing rare animals for economic gain (poaching) is another environmental problem.
Conditional sentences
Read and translate the following statements paying attention to the underlined words.
1. If you want to change the man’s mind, work on changing his assumptions.
2. If you make people think they’re thinking they will love you; but if you really
make them think they will hate you.
Сложные предложения, в которых одно простое предложение подчинено другому и соединено с ним подчинительными союзами, если, если не, при условии, если, при условии что, называются “условными предложениями”.
Союзы, вводящие условные предложнения: If, in case, unless, but for, providing, on condition.
Типы условных предложений
1 тип
Выражают: реальные, осуществимые предположения.
Относятся: чаще всего к будущему, а также к настоящему
Переводятся: предложениями с глаголом в изъявительном наклонении
| Придаточное предложение (условие) | Главное предложение (следствие) |
| a) Present Indefinite | will |
| b)should + infinitive без to (для всех лиц) | will |
| Выражает меньшую вероятность | |
| c) will + infinitive без to | will |
| will служит для выражения просьбы | |
| d) Present Indefinite | Глагол в повелительном наклонении |
Examples: a) I’ll give you the book on condition you return it next week.
b) If Pr. Petrov should come I will ask him to show you this experiment.
c) If you will come to the conference we will be grateful.
d) If you see Pr. Petrov ask him to ring me.
2 тип
Выражают: невероятные или маловероятные предположения.
Относятся: к настоящему или будущему времени
Переводятся: предложениями в сослагательном наклонении (прошедшее время + бы)
| Придаточное предложение | Главное предложение |
| a) Past Indefinite | would + infinitive без to |
| b) was/ were | would + infinitive без to |
| c) would + infinitive без to | would + infinitive без to |
| would – для выражения просьбы |
Examples: a) If I knew this problem I would write a term paper.
b) If Pr. Petrov were here he would help us to make this experiment.
c) If you would send us a letter we would be grateful.
3 тип
Выражают: невыполнимые предположения.
Относятся: к прошедшему времени
Переводятся: предложениями с глаголом в сослагательном наклонении (прошедшее время + бы)
| Придаточное предложение | Главное предложение |
| Past Perfect | world + Perfect infinitive без to |
Example: Had there been a nuclear power industry at that time it would be unnecessary to enrich the raw uranium.
Иногда условие может относиться к прошедшему времени, а следствие к настоящему или будущему, или наоборот. Тогда мы имеем ”смешанный” тип условного предложения.
Examples: If you had worked harder last year, you would know English well now. – Если бы в прошлом году ты больше занимался, то сейчас знал бы английский лучше.
Условие – в прошедшем, следствие – в настоящем.
If he knew English well he would have translated the article without difficulty yesterday. - Если бы ты хорошо знал английский, то вчера перевел бы статью без проблем.
Условие – в настоящем, следствие – в прошедшем.
Если в придаточных предложениях условия имеются глаголы had, were, could, might, should союзы могут опускаться, а перечисленные глаголы ставятся перед подлежащим. При переводе на русский язык союз восстанавливается.
Example: Had conditions permitted the geologists would have applied aerial prospecting. – Если бы позволили условия, геологи провели бы разведку с воздуха.
I Read and translate the following sentences. Pay attention to different types of real and unreal condition.
1) If he were at the laboratory now he would make a practical on inorganic chemistry.
2) If he had been to the lab yesterday he would have made a practical on inorganic chemistry.
3) If the air is warmed it will rise and expand.
4) If he were to accept some theory now he would accept the atomic theory.
5) If the theory had been presented in a simple manner I wouldn’t have made a mistake.
6) Trees will not thrive in dry regions unless they grow along the banks of streams.
7) The scientists had to verify the hypothesis. If they had enough knowledge about atoms they would have accepted it as a fact.
8) Were the earth - spheroid a homogeneous ball, the value of gravity would be the same for all points in the same latitude.
II Change the sentences according to the model.
Model: The scientists don’t get necessary results, because they don’t use new
method. – In case the scientists use new method, they will get necessary results.
1) The gas molecules don’t fall to the bottom of a container under the force of gravity, because they are in motion.
2) I made a mistake, because I didn’t know this theorem.
3) He didn’t get his examination last year, because he didn’t study properly.
4) He will finish the experiment, because he will work hard.
5) The student doesn’t study the problem, because he is not interested in it.
6) Hydrogen is not being used as the base of atomic weights. It doesn’t require changes of all atomic weights.
7) There is definite order in the way in which atoms of different elements combine to form the molecules and crystals of compounds, so it is not necessary for us to memorize one by one the formulas of thousands of substances.
8) The axis of rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of the orbit in which the earth revolves around the sun, so day and night are not of equal length at all places and at all seasons.
III Open the brackets.
1) You will pass your examination if you (to work) hard.
2) You will succeed if you (to do) as I tell you.
3) The volume of a given weight of a gas could be calculated directly from the perfect gas equation if the molecular weight (to be known)
4) You would have passed the examination if you (to work) hard.
5) It should be expected to show a nearly uniform change in density from the surface downward if the earth (to be composed of) the same material from the surface downward.
6) They would have got the necessary results if they (to study) the problem better.
7) It would have been better if you (to make) the experiment yourself.
8) This theorem would have been greeted with disagreement and disbelief if it (to be proved) in an earlier age.
IV Read the text and translate it into Russian. Underline conditional sentences.
… It is known that the interior of the earth is hot. The temperature of the earth’s crust increases steadily downward. The average increase is about 1°C per 100 feet. Very little is known of the temperatures within the earth. Most of the earth is essentially solid. If, by compression or by radioactivity, parts of the earth become molten, it is probable that some of this hot material rises toward the surface and carries heat with it.
If the earth were made of the same material from the surface downward, its density should vary with the pressure and presumably its elasticity and rigidity would vary approximately with the pressure. This evidently is not the case, however, for the rate at which earthquake waves are transmitted changes very irregularly with depth. At a depth of 60 miles the rate of increase of speed falls off and at a depth of about 1,600 kilometers the velocity of earthquake waves becomes about uniform.
If the earth were composed of the same material from the surface downward, for example of granite, it should be expected to snow a nearly uniform change in density from the surface downward; because it does not do so, it is reasonable to suppose that the nature of the material changes, and it is supposed that the earth is made up of zones of material of different composition.