(1) neither; (2) below; (3) after; (4) later; (5) before; (6) against; (7) because;
(8) both; (9) still; (10) however; (11) forward; (12) outside; (13) although
№9 Перепишите переделанный текст в тетрадь и письменно переведите 1, 2, 3, 6 абзацы текста:
1) The Time of Troubles was a period of Russian history comprising the years of interregnum between the death of the last of the Muscovy Tsar Feodor Ivanovich of the Rurik Dynasty in 1598 and the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613. ...... Feodor's death without issue, his brother-in-law and closest adviser, boyar Boris Godunov, was elected его приемником by a Great National Assembly (Zemsky Sobor).
2) Godunov's короткое правление (1598–1605) was not as successful as his administration under the weak Feodor. Extremely poor harvests were encountered in 1601-1603, with nighttime temperatures in all summer months often ...... freezing, wrecking crops. Widespread hunger led to массовому голоду; the government distributed money and foodstuffs for poor people in Moscow, but that only lead to refugees flocking to the capital and increasing the economic disorganization. The oligarchic faction, headed by the Romanovs, considered it a disgrace подчиняться a mere boyar; conspiracies were frequent; the rural districts were desolated by голодом и чумой; great bands of armed brigands roamed the country committing all manner of atrocities; the Cossacks on the frontier were restless; and the government показало себя неспособным maintaining order.
3) Rumors were heard that the late tsar's younger brother Dmitri, supposed to be dead, was ....... alive and in hiding. In 1603 a man calling himself Dmitri - first of the so-called False Dmitris - appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was regarded as the законным наследником by a large section of the population and gathered support ...... in Muscovy and ....... its borders.
4) A few months ...... he crossed the frontier with a small force of Poles, Lithuanians, Russian exiles, German mercenaries and Cossacks from the Dnieper and the Don. ...... the Commonwealth had not officially declared war on Muscovy, some powerful magnates decided to support False Dmitri with their own forces and money, expecting rich rewards afterwards. The reign of Dmitri was short. ...... a year had passed заговор was formed ....... him by an ambitious Rurikid prince called Vasily Shuisky, and he was murdered together with many of his supporters who were жестоко расправились.
5) The chief conspirator, Shuisky, seized power and was elected tsar by an assembly composed of his faction, but ....... the Muscovite boyars, nor the Commonwealth magnates, nor the pillaging Cossacks, nor the German mercenaries were satisfied with the change, and soon новый самозванец, likewise calling himself Dmitri, son and heir of Ivan the Terrible, came ...... as the rightful heir. Like his предшественник, he enjoyed the protection and support of the Polish-Lithuanian magnates.
6) False Dmitrii II wasn't able to gain the throne, however, ....... the Polish commander, hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski put forward a rival candidate in the person of Sigismund's son, Władysław. To this latter some people in Moscow swore allegiance
on condition of his maintaining Orthodoxy and granting certain privileges to them. The Polish king, ......, opposed the compromise, deciding to take the throne for himself and обратить Russia to Roman Catholicism.
7) At the same time it was displeasing to the Swedes. Russia was now in a very critical condition. The throne was vacant; the great nobles (boyars) quarreled among themselves; Orthodox Patriarch Hermogenes was imprisoned; Catholic Poles occupied the Moscow Kremlin and Smolensk; the Protestant Swedes occupied Novgorod; and enormous bands of brigands swarmed everywhere.
№10 Прочитайте текст еще раз и ответьте на вопросы к нему:
1) Who supported the first of the False-Dmitri?
2) Who murdered the first False-Dmitri?
3) What dynasties claimed for the Russian throne?
4) Who was the second False-Dmitri?
№11 Выпишите выделенные жирным шрифтом глаголы и укажите их форму (личная\неличная), время, залог.
Дополнительные тексты.
The Space Race was a competition of space exploration between the United States and Soviet Union, which lasted roughly from 1957 to 1975. It involved the efforts to explore outer space with artificial satellites, to send humans into space, and to land people on the Moon.
Though its roots lie in early rocket technology and in the international tensions following World War II, the Space Race effectively began after the Soviet launch of Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957. The Space Race became an important part of the cultural, technological, and ideological rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky theorized in the 1880s on multi-stage, liquid fuel rockets which might reach space and established the basics of rocket science. Tsiolkovsky also wrote the first theoretical description of a man-made satellite. In 1926, American Robert H. Goddard designed a practical liquid fuel rocket.
In the mid-1920s, German scientists began experimenting with rockets powered by liquid propellants that were capable of reaching relatively high altitudes and distances. Wernher von Braun developed long-range artillery fire weapons for Nazi Germany's use in World War II.
As World War II drew to a close, U.S., UK and Soviet military and scientific crews raced to capture technology and trained personnel from the German rocket program installation at Peenemünde. The United Kingdom and the Soviet Union had some success, but the United States arguably benefited most, taking a large number of German rocket scientists - many of them members of the Nazi Party, including von Braun.
On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth, thus beginning the Space Race. In the Soviet Union, a country recovering from a devastating war, the launch of Sputnik and the following program of space exploration were met with great interest from the public. It was important and encouraging to for Soviet citizens to see the proof of technical prowess in the new era.
Nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, the United States launched its first satellite, Explorer I. In the meantime, several embarrassing launch failures had occurred at Cape Canaveral. Sputnik helped to determine the density of the upper atmosphere, and Explorer I flight data led to the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belt by James Van Allen.
The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space when he entered orbit in the Soviet Union's Vostok 1 on 12 April 1961, a day now celebrated as a holiday in Russia and in many other countries. He orbited the Earth for 108 minutes. 23 days later, on mission Freedom 7, Alan Shepard first entered sub-orbital space for the United States. Soviet Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space on 16 June 1963 in Vostok 6.The first flight with more than one crew member was the Soviet Union's Voskhod 1, a modified version of the Vostok craft, took off on 12 October 1964 carrying Komarov, Feoktistov and Yegorov. This flight also marked the first occasion on which a crew did not wear spacesuits.
Aleksei Leonov, from Voskhod 2, launched by the Soviet Union on 18 March 1965, carried out the first spacewalk. Following the Soviet success in placing the first satellite into orbit, the Americans focused their efforts on sending a probe to the Moon. American Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the lunar surface on 21 July 1969, after landing the previous day.
Seven Years' War
The great event of Elizabeth's later years was the Seven Years' War. Elizabeth regarded the treaty of Westminster (January 16, 1756) as utterly subversive of the previous conventions between Great Britain and Russia. And by no means unwarrantable fear of the king of Prussia, who was to be reduced within proper limits, so that he might be no longer a danger to the empire, induced Elizabeth to accede to the treaty of Versailles, in other words the Franco-Austrian league against Prussia, and on the May 17, 1757 the Russian army, 85,000 strong, advanced against Königsberg.
Neither the serious illness of the empress, which began with a fainting-fit at Tsarskoe Selo, nor the fall of Bestuzhev, nor the cabals and intrigues of the various foreign powers at St Petersburg, interfered with the progress of the war, and the crushing defeat of Kunersdorf at last brought Frederick to the verge of ruin. From that day forth he despaired of success, though he was saved for the moment by the jealousies of the Russian and Austrian commanders, which ruined the military plans of the allies.
On the other hand, it is not too much to say that, from the end of 1759 to the end of 1761, the unshakable firmness of the Russian empress was the one constraining political force which held together the heterogeneous, incessantly jarring elements of the anti-Prussian combination. From the Russian point of view, Elizabeth's greatness as a stateswoman consists in her steady appreciation of Russian interests, and her determination to promote them at all hazards. She insisted throughout that the King of Prussia must be rendered harmless to his neighbors for the future, and that the only way to bring this about was to reduce him to the rank of a Prince-elector. Frederick himself was quite alive to his danger.
On May 21, 1760 a fresh convention was signed between Russia and Austria, a secret clause of which, never communicated to the court of Versailles, guaranteed East Prussia to Russia, as an indemnity for war expenses. The failure of the campaign of 1760, wielded by the inept Count Buturlin, induced the court of Versailles, on the evening of January 22, 1761, to present to the court of St Petersburg a dispatch to the effect that the king of France by reason of the condition of his dominions absolutely desired peace. The Russian empress’s reply was delivered to the two ambassadors on February 12. It was inspired by the most uncompromising hostility towards the King of Prussia. Elizabeth would not consent to any pacific overtures until the original object of the league had been accomplished.
Simultaneously, Elizabeth caused to be conveyed to Louis XV a confidential letter in which she proposed the signature of a new treaty of alliance of a more comprehensive and explicit nature than the preceding treaties between the two powers, without the knowledge of Austria. Elizabeth's object in this mysterious negotiation seems to have been to reconcile France and Great Britain, in return for which signal service France was to throw all her forces into the German war. This project, which lacked neither ability nor audacity, foundered upon Louis XV's invincible jealousy of the growth of Russian influence in Eastern Europe and his fear of offending the Porte.
The Russian Civil War (1917-1922) began immediately after the collapse of the Russian provisional government and the Bolshevik takeover of Petrograd. Although the war was multi-sided and included foreign forces from several countries, the main hostilities took place between Bolshevik forces, known as the Red Army, and loosely-allied anti-Bolshevik forces, known as the White Army. Other forces included the Ukrainian nationalist Green Army and the anarchist Black Army, as well as various other nationalist and regional movements. These forces sometimes fought against both Reds and Whites, sometimes sided with one of the two, and some even switched sides. In Soviet historiography the end of the Civil War is dated to October 25, 1922 when the Red Army occupied Vladivostok, previously held by the Provisional Priamur Government.
The most intense fighting took place from 1918 to 1920. Following the abdication of Nicholas II of Russia and the turbulent Russian Revolution throughout 1917, the Russian Provisional Government was established. In October another revolution occurred in which the Red Guard, armed groups of workers and deserting soldiers directed by the Bolshevik Party, seized control of Saint Petersburg and began an immediate armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire. In January 1918, Lenin had the Constituent Assembly violently dissolved, proclaiming the Soviets as the new government of Russia.
The Bolsheviks decided to immediately make peace with the German Empire and the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people prior to the Revolution. His political enemies attributed this decision to Vladimir Lenin's sponsorship by the foreign office of William II, German Emperor, offered by the latter in hopes that with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from World War I, although no concrete evidence was ever found. A cease fire was immediately announced and peace talks began. As a condition for peace, the proposed treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting nationalists and conservatives.
In view of this, the Germans began an all out advance on the Eastern Front, encountering no resistance. Signing a formal peace treaty was the only option in the eyes of the Bolsheviks, because the Russian army was demobilized and the newly formed Red Guard were incapable of stopping the advance. They also understood that the impending counterrevolutionary resistance was more dangerous than the concessions of the treaty, which Lenin viewed as temporary in the light of aspirations for a world revolution.
A loose confederation of anti-Bolshevik forces aligned against the Communist government, including land-owners, republicans, conservatives, middle-class citizens, reactionaries, pro-monarchists, liberals, army generals, non-Bolshevik socialists who still had grievances and democratic reformists, voluntarily united only in their opposition to Bolshevik rule. Their military forces, bolstered by foreign influence and led by General Yudenich, Admiral Kolchak and General Denikin, became known as the White movement (sometimes referred to as the "White Army"), and they controlled significant parts of the former Russian empire for most of the war.
Gulag was the government body responsible for administering prison camps across the former Soviet Union. The word "Gulag" has also come to signify not only the administration of the concentration camps but also the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties: labor camps, punishment camps, criminal and political camps, women's camps, children's camps, transit camps., Even more broadly, "Gulag" has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that prisoners once called the "meat-grinder": the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths.
From 1918 camp-type detention facilities were set up, as a reformed analogy of the earlier system of penal labor, operated in Siberia in Imperial Russia. The two main types were "Vechecka Special-purpose Camps" and forced labor camps. They were installed for various categories of people deemed dangerous for the state: for common criminals, for prisoners of the Russian Civil War, for officials accused of corruption, sabotage and embezzlement, various political enemies and dissidents, as well as former aristocrats, businessmen and large land owners.
In the early 1930s, a drastic tightening of Soviet penal policy caused a significant growth of the prison camp population. During the period of the Great Purge (1937–38), mass arrests caused another upsurge in inmate numbers. During these years, hundreds of thousands of individuals were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on the grounds of one of the multiple passages of the notorious Article 58 of the Criminal Codes of the Union republics, which defined punishment for various forms of "counterrevolutionary activities."
During World War II, Gulag populations declined sharply, owing to the mass releases of hundreds of thousands of prisoners who were conscripted and sent directly to the front lines and a steep rise in mortality in 1942–43.