The development of the International Style was reinforced by two events: a series of exhibitions at which architects from different countries saw and were influenced by each other's experiments, and the formation of an international organization through which ideas could be exchanged and mutual support enjoyed.
Exhibitions provided opportunities to explore an environment created wholly by modem buildings; they had been experienced only as single structures against an alien background.
The international organization was the Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Modeme, known as CIAM. Founded in Switzerland in 1928, the organization lasted until 1959 and concerned itself especially with planning and the social role of architecture. During the period of ClAM's greatest influence, in the 1930s, among its members were most of the great architects of the day, including Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier and Alvar Aalto. Athens Charter is a manifesto published by the CIAM in 1933, setting out data and requirements connected with the problem of the modem city under 5 main headings: Dwelling, Recreation, Work, Transportation, Historic Buildings. The pioneers of modem design wanted to build constructions that reflected the modem age.
Until the 1930s, Germany was the main centre of the new architecture because of the presence there of another unifying institution, the Bauhaus, a college of design, established at Weimar by Walter Gropius in 1919. The Bauhaus became synonymous with modern teaching methods in architecture and the applied arts, and with a functional aesthetic for the industrial age.
In the yea's after 1945 the emphasis was on town-planning and housing, and in most countries also on legislation to control building in the public interest, in which activities Britain set the lead. This was the era of new towns, vast housing estates and attempts to gear building programmes both to social needs and to industrialized systems and techniques.
In matters of architectural style, it became less a question of conflict between period revival and modern design than between buildings designed for effect and those that aimed at the creation of a modem vernacular and a humane and harmonious environment.
Vocabulary to the text "Modern Architecture"
Alien ['eilj n] a чужой, чуждый, несвойственный
Contrivance [k n'traivns] n выдумка, затея, изобретение
Desire [di'zai ] n (сильное) желание желать, хотеть
Event [i'vent] n событие, важное явление, случай
Exchange [iks't eind ] v обменивать(ся), променять
Explore [iks'pl :] v исследовать, изучать, выяснять
Gear [gi ] v v приводить в движение, направлять по плану
Humane [hju:'mein] a человечный, гуманный
Legislation [,led is'lei n] n законодательство, законы
Matter ['m t ] n сущность, вещество, материал, материя
Mutual ['mjurtju 1] a взаимный, обоюдный, совместный
Permit [p 'mit] v позволять, разрешать
Vernacular [v 'n kjul ] a национальный, народный, местный
Wholly ['houli] adv целиком, полностью, совсем, вполне
Ex. 2. Answer the following questions to the text:
1. What is the term of modern architecture applied to?
2. What led to the changed appearance of buildings in the early 20th century?
3. What events reinforced the development of the International Style?
4. What opportunities did exhibitions provide?
5. What organization was founded in Switzerland in 1928?
6. What was the goal of CIAM?
7. What architects greatly influenced the development of architecture during the period of CIAM?
8. What 5 main headings were mentioned in the Athens Charter published in 1933?
9. Who established the Bauhaus?
10.What country was the leader of modern architecture in the years after 1945?
Ex. 3. Fill in the necessary modal verbs and translate the sentences:
l. The building ... be oriented towards the south. 2. Light colours ... have been used inside. 3. The walls ... (n't) have been faced with rough-hewn granite,... they? 4. In which style ... we build? 5. Decoration ... have been kept to a minimum. 6. ... the value of construction work be discussed? 7. The work... be done quicker and at less cost.
Ex. 4. Entitle all passages of the text "Modern Architecture"
Ex.5. Extract all irregular verbs from the text " Modern Architecture " And give their Tense and Voice forms
Ex. 6. Give synonyms to the following words and word-combinations
Building; current; to erect; in the early 20th century, desire; contrivance; to use;
favourite; large; formation; structure; town.
Vocabulary to the text "The Age of Revivals"
Array [ 'rei] n масса, множество, совокупность
Assert [ 's :t] v заявлять, утверждать
Be concerned with заниматься (чем-л.), касаться
Choose [t u:z] (chose, chosen) v выбирать, отбирать
Conscientiously [ k n I'en sli] adv сознательно
Dignified ['dignifaid] a достойный
Fancy ['f nsi] n воображение
Glitter ['glit ] v сверкать, блистать
Leisure ['Ie ] n досуг
Miscellany [mi'sel ni] n смесь
Owe [OU] V быть обязанным
Rival ['raiv 1] a соперничающий, конкурирующий
Stirring ['st :ri ] n активность, беспокойство
Vie [vai] v соперничать
Text B THE AGE OF REVIVALS
The Industrial Revolution, which introduced new materials and techniques, made the 19th century the time of the vast expansion of cities or urbanization in Europe and America. Then more buildings were constructed than in all previous ages added together.
The role of the architect was merely confined to decorating the building facades. Throughout Europe nearly every past style was re-examined and reused, but as the century wore on styles of the past were no longer imitated exactly, but were looked on as a quarry from which architects could extract whatever elements struck their fancy. A succession of rival styles came, vied with each other and went, some conforming conscientiously to historic precedent, but many more mingling reminiscences of different periods and countries. This resulted in either beautiful or graceless eclecticism. Richness of form and picturesqueness of effect were the principal aim.
Styles began to be chosen not just for fashion but for their associative qualities:
Roman for justice, Gothic for learning and churches, Byzantine mainly for churches, the Italian Renaissance for palaces and ministries, Greek for government, Venetian for commerce. Oriental for leisure, Hansetic for housing, the Baroque for theatres and opera houses, Romanesque for public architecture. Colonial for bank buildings, churches and suburban homes. Nevertheless, the 19th century revival architecture was dominated by the Classic Revival, or Neo-Classicism, and the Gothic Revival, or Neo-Gothic.
A reaction against stylizations came nearer the end of the century. It, too, was concerned with decoration more than construction, and aimed at creating a style -especially a style of ornament - that owed nothing to the past. It emerged as Art Nouveau in France and Belgium, a little later as Jugendstil in Germany, and spread throughout Europe and reached the USA.
Behind this picturesque play-acting glittered the iron and glass architecture of the engineer-experimentalist, who created the impressive array of simple, dignified and refreshingly functional buildings, the viaducts, dockyards, textile mills and railway stations. There was Paxton's Crystal Palace (1851), one of the most revolutionary buildings in the history of world architecture, and the daring towers or skyscrapers of the Chicago School (1880-1900).
The "Japonism" of the Aesthetic Movement, the Arts and Crafts movement, the preachings of William Morris against opulence and the tyranny of the machine, the stirrings of Art Nouveau and the folksy aspirations of the garden city movement can now be seen to have been the ancestors of modem architecture.
Test
1. Choose the correct endings to the following sentences
2.
1. The Industrial Revolution made the l9th century the time of...
a) breaking the laws of architecture;
b) usage construction more than decoration;
c) the vast expansion of cities in Europe and America.
2. Richness of form was ...
a) the principal aim;
b) the main disadvantage;
c) the great desire.
3. A reaction against stylizations came ...
a) at the beginning of the l9th century;
b) at the end of the l9th century;
c) in the middle of the l9th century.
2. Fill in the necessary words and word-combinations
1. The role of the architect... to decorating the building facades.
a) was merely confined;
b) was subjected;
c) was aimed.
2. Styles began to be ... not just for fashion but for their associative qualities. a) done; b) chosen; c) drawn.
3. There was ... one of the most revolutionary buildings in the history of world architecture.
a) St.Paul's Cathedral;
b) Westminster Palace;
c) Paxton's Crystal Palace.
Exercise VII. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the GERUND in various functions:
Learn the patterns: l. (Подлежащее) Flooding the interior with light was characteristic of the 18th century architecture. Интенсивное заполнение внутреннего пространства светом было характерно для зодчества ХVIII века. 2. (Именная часть сказуемого) The job of the engineer is making things, or if you like, imposing an idea or form on material. Задача инженера - создавать предметы или, если хотите, воплощать замысел или форму в материале. 3. (Дополнение). The house needs repairing (= being repaired). Дом требует ремонта. The planning authorities insisted on retaining some of the many trees. Градостроители настаивали на сохранении некоторой части деревьев..
4. (Определение) The most efficient method of moving the structure. Самый эффективный метод передвижения сооружения.
5. (Обстоятельство) Architects sharpen their skills by participating in competitions. Архитекторы оттачивают свое мастерство, участвуя в конкурсах.
l. The facade is unusual in having round towers. 2. A base is distinguished from a foundation or footing in being visible rather than buried. 3. This project passed through many stages before being realized. 4. From the 17th to the 19th centuries domes were an area for experimenting with new methods of construction. 5. The Pantheon is unique among the buildings of Imperial Rome in having survived intact. 6. Artology is distinguished from aesthetics in not being concerned with questions of beauty in nature. 7. Optimizing choices in the building community was the theme of a national symposium. 8. One of the ways of enhancing the beauty of architecture is by determining the quantity and quality of the architectural elements and their combinations.
Ex. VIII. Read text C and fill the gaps using the words before eash passage
1st passage
predict [pri'dikt] v- предсказывать
undergo[, nd 'gou] - испытывать, переносить, подвергаться (чему-л.)
2nd passage
explosion[iks'plou n] n - взрыв, вспышка
heretofore['hi tu'f :] adv - прежде, до этого
3rd passage
advancement d'va:nsm nt] n - продвижение, успех, прогресс
refinement[ri'fainm nt] n - очищение, обработка, отделка, усовершенствование
location[lou'kei n] n - определение места, размещение, участок
plug-in[pl g'in]a - вставной, блочный, съемный
4th passage
hamper['h mp ] v - препятствовать, мешать, затруднять
overuse[ 'ouv 'ju:z]v - использовать сверх предела
utilizingE'jurtilaizin] a - использованный, утилизированный
shape[ eip] n - форма, очертание, вид, образ
versatile['v :s tail] a - многосторонний, разносторонний, непостоянный
enable [i'neibi] v - давать возможность или право, делать годным
reference['refr ns] n - ссылка, справка, упоминание, намек, рекомендация
diversified[dai'v :sifaid] a - - разнообразный, различный
flexible['fleks bl] a - гибкий, податливый
5th passage
ponder['p nd ] v - обдумывать, взвешивать, размышлять
replace[ri'pleis] v - ставить на место, вернуть, восстановить
6th passage
anticipate[ n'tisipeit] v - ожидать, предвидеть, предчувствовать, опережать
7th passage
never-ending['nev r'endin] a - непрекращающийся, бесконечный
evidenceE'evid ns] n - очевидность, основание, доказательство
epoch['i:p k] n - эпоха, период
Text C TOWARDS THE FUTURE
No one can accurately... what the future of architecture will bring. The future will be related to the development of new materials, new construction methods, computer designing, and the sociological changes we ....
Size. The technological ... should enable us to build in sizes ... impossible. But who can say what will be possible?
Location. In the future we should be capable of building structures on locations that would now be unthought of. ... in transportation methods and ... in the engineering of structures will make even more ... possible. There are books and articles about ... cities and cities underground, in the sky, under the ocean, and about other cities of the future.
Shapes. For centuries we have been ... in our architectural development through the use and ... of the square and the cube as the basis for our structures. We are just entering into a fuller realization of the possibilities of... other... such as the triangle, the pyramid, the circle, and the sphere. The development of stronger, more ... materials and new construction techniques should ... us to construct buildings that are completely functional without... to any basic geometric form. Even the basic floor plans should be more ... with the development of new and more ... building materials. Frank LWright demonstrated for 60 years that interior space can be much richer and much more interesting than a box.
Dwelling. What our homes will look like in 10,20,30, or loo years is an interesting question to.... Perhaps there will be no houses, they will be ... by controlled environment. Indeed, houses as we know them may become museum pieces, or only illustrations of architectural history.
With more leisure time ... in the future, more emphasis will be placed on recreational activities within or about the home.
Architectural creation is a ... process. Modern architects should work so that many buildings of the 20th century would not become for future generations ... of an architectural dark....
Exercise IX. Make up and tell the topic "ARCHITECTURE" on the basis of the given 3 texts : "Modern Architecture", "The Age of Revivals", "Towards the Future".