Terrorism
1) Terrorism is the systematic use of terror or unpredictable violence against governments, publics, or individuals to attain a political objective. Terrorism has been used by political organizations with both rightist and leftist objectives, by nationalistic and ethnic groups, by revolutionaries, and by the armies and secret police of the governments themselves.
2) Terrorism has been practiced throughout history and throughout the world. The ancient Greek historian Xenophon wrote of the effectiveness of psychological warfare against enemy populations. Roman emperors such as Tiberius and Caligula used banishment, expropriation of property, and execution as means to discourage opposition to their rule. The Spanish Inquisition used arbitrary arrest, torture, and execution to punish what is viewed as religious heresy. The use of terror was openly advocated by Robespierre as a means of encouraging revolutionary virtue during the French Revolution, leading to the period of his political dominance called the Reign of Terror (1793-94). After the American Civil War (1861—65) defiant Southerners formed a terrorist organization called the Ku Klux Klan to intimidate supporters of
Reconstruction. In the latter half of the 19th century, terrorism was adopted by adherents of anarchism in Western Europe, Russia, and the United States. They believed that the best way to effect revolutionary political and social change was to assassinate persons in positions of power. From 1865 to 1905 a number of kings, presidents, prime ministers, and other government officials were killed by anarchists' guns or bombs.
3) The 20th century witnessed great changes in the use and practice of terrorism. Terrorism became the hallmark of a number of political movements stretching from the extreme right to the extreme left of the political spectrum. Technological advances such as automatic weapons and compact, electrically detonated explosives gave terrorists a new mobility and lethality.
4) Terrorism was adopted as virtually a state policy, though an unacknowledged one, by such totalitarian regimes as those of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. In these states arrest, imprisonment, torture, and execution were applied without legal guidance or restraints to create a climate of fear and to encourage adherence to the national ideology and the declared economic, social, and political goals of the state.
5) Terrorism has most commonly become identified, however, with individuals or groups attempting to destabilize or overthrow existing political institutions. Terrorism has been used by one or both sides in anticolonial conflicts (Ireland and the United Kingdom, Algeria and France, Vietnam and France/United States), in disputes between different national groups over possession of a contested homeland (Palestinians and Israel), in conflicts between different religious denominations (Catholics and Protestants in the Northern Ireland), and in internal conflicts between revolutionary forces and established governments (Malaysia, Indonesia, etc.)
6) Terrorism's public impact has been greatly magnified by the use of modern communications media. Any act of violence is certain to attract television coverage, which brings the event directly into millions of homes and exposes viewers to the terrorists' demands, grievances, or political goals. Modern terrorism differs from that of the past because its victims are frequently innocent civilians who are picked at random or who merely happen into terrorist situations. Many groups of terrorists in Europe hark back to the anarchists of the 19th century in their isolation from the political mainstream and the unrealistic nature of their goals. Lacking a base of popular support, extremists substitute violent acts for legitimate political activities. Such acts include kidnappings, assassinations, skyjackings, bombings, and hijackings.
№11 Прочитайте текст еще раз и письменно ответьте на вопросы к нему:
1) What objectives are usually pursued by terrorism?
2) What was the role and place of terrorism throughout centuries and throughout the world?
3) Can terrorism be used in the framework of a state policy? Do you think terrorism is the only means of settling various conflicts in societies?
4) What is the role of communications media in terrorism's public impact?
№12 Определите, являются ли следующие утверждения верными (true) или неверными (false). Исправьте неверные утверждения и перепишите их.
1) The practice of using terrorism in its form of unpredictable violence throughout the contemporary world cannot be denied.
2) But for terror during the French Revolution Robespierre would have never entered the period of his political dominance.
3) Technological advances of the 20th century brought no changes into the practice of terrorism.
4) In order to encourage adherence to the national ideology and the declared political goals of the state Nazi Germany put no obstacles to terrorism.
5) The anarchists of the 19th century were always close to the political mainstream and put forward quite realistic demands.
6) Due to modern communications media, millions of viewers are directly exposed to the terrorists' political goals.
7) There are no differences between modern terrorism and terrorism of the past.
8) Terrorism first appeared in France during the Robespierre Reign of Terror.
Вариант №4
№1 Раскройте скобки и поставьте глаголы в нужное время (Present Simple, Present Continuous, Present Perfect, present Perfect Continuous, Past Simple, Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous, Future Simple, Future Continuous, Future Perfect). Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык:
1 “Are you free on Tuesday?” – “I’m afraid not. I (to meet) Julia.”
2 They (to play) for half an hour when their father got home.
3 It was warm, so I (to take off) my coat.
4 “What you (to do) at this time yesterday?” – “I (to prepare) for my exam.”
5 I (to meet) a lot of people in the last few days.
6 You (to know) each other for a long time?
7 I tried to phone her this morning, but there (to be) no answer. She (to go) out.
8 Next year they (to be married) for 25 years.
№2 Употребите следующие предложения как придаточные дополнительные, в роли главных используя предложения, данные в скобках. Изменяйте времена в соответствии с правилом согласования времен. Перепишите переделанные предложения:
1 “I will come to the party”. (Ann promised …)
2 “Can I do the washing-up?” (I offered…)
3 “Don’t touch the wire”. (He warned me…)
4 She made no mistakes in her dictation. (She was glad…)
5 “You’d better apologize for being late”. (My mother advised…)
№3 Раскройте скобки и выберите нужную пассивную форму глагола, укажите время. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык:
1 (Was anybody injured/Has anybody been injured) in the accident?
2 “Is this an old film?” – “Yes, it (was made/had been made) in 1949.”
3 There are a lot of students in the hall. A new film (is being showed/is showed).
4 Maria is happy. She (was offered/has been offered) a new job.
5 Rice (is grown/has been grown) in many countries.
6 Dinner (is served/is being served) at six.
7 You (will be sent/will have been sent) to Paris at the end of the month.
8 Don’t water the plants. They (have just been watered/were just watered).
№4 Переведите диалог и передайте его в косвенной речи, переделывая каждое предложение:
Mother: Mark, we’ve run out of vegetables and we’ve hardly any bread in the house. You know, now it’s your turn to go to the greengrocer’s and to the baker’s.
Mark: Oh, bother! Why do we have to go shopping so often?
Mother: The day before yesterday it was Nelly who did all the shopping. She went to the grocer’s and to the butcher’s.
Mark: Did she? But, Mother, girls are so fond of shopping. Let Nelly to do it today as well.
Mother: Oh, you’ve been lazy-bones ever since you were born! It’s so difficult to make you go anywhere.
Mark: Do you want me to be a model boy, Mum?
Mother: I’d like to. Take that bag and don’t grumble. Buy a cabbage, a pound of onions, half a pound of carrots and a loaf of bread. Here is the money and don’t forget the change.
№5 Закончите предложения, образовав требующуюся часть речи (часть речи указана в скобках). Перепишите и переведите предложения на русский язык:
1 Prices have increased (sharp) in relation to rising production costs. (наречие)
2 The (true) is sometimes difficult to find. (существительное)
3 It is a (to relate) short trip from here to Mar’s house. (наречие)
4 There is a (possible) that she will be studying abroad next year. (существительное)
5 Much (to prepare) is necessary before all diplomatic visits. (существительное)
6 Many actors get (nerve) before performing on a stage. (прилагательное)
7 The two girls had a strong and lasting (friend) (существительное)
8 Jack was (enormous) disappointed when he failed his driving test. (наречие)
№6 а) Раскройте скобки и выберите подходящий предлог времени. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык:
1 I haven’t seen you (for/during) ages.
2 Our lessons start (at/on) 9 o’clock.
3 We have known each other (since/from) childhood.
4 He is on a business trip. He’ll return (in/after) two weeks.
5 Are you free (on/in) Friday evening?
b) Раскройте скобки и выберите подходящий предлог места и направления. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык:
1 The story is a dialogue (among/between) a husband and a wife.
2 (In/At) the end of the street you’ll see a big beautiful building.
3 Something strange was lying (on/at) the table.
4 Look at the picture (on/at) the top of the page.
5 She saw him (through/across) the window.
№7 Исправьте ошибки в употреблении артиклей, вставьте артикли, где необходимо. Перепишите исправленные предложения и переведите их на русский язык:
1 Day by day the weather is getting warmer and warmer.
2 Jeffrey Chaucer, a founder of English Literature, lived an interesting life.
3 The Japanese are more industrious than the French.
4 Eugene was dressed like the London dandy.
5 What do you like better: the summer or the winter?
6 Do you want an advice?
7 The China is an ancient country in Middle East.
8 I’m looking for the pair of trousers.
9 We must drink a mineral water to be healthy.
10 There was a little understanding between father and son.
№8 Прочитайте текст и найдите в нем следующие слова и выражения:
осуществление (применение) политической власти; выражение воли государства;
участия масс в политике; придание первостепенного значения воле большинства;
интеграция или слияние законодательной и исполнительной властей;
гибельный, роковой; связующее звено между теми, кто правит, и теми, кем управляют; набор установленных норм, принятых за основной закон; объединение множества интересов; служить примером; выборные должности в правительстве
№9 Совместите следующие слова с их значениями:
| a) electorate | 1) the struggle between several people or groups to win something or gain an advantage |
| b) suffrage | 2) joining to something else so as to form a whole |
| c) office | 3) a principle or set of principles ( especially of a religious or political kind) that is taught |
| d) ratify | 4) an act of making a choice or decision |
| e) legislature | 5) a government department |
| f) vote | 6) to add strength or support to; make stronger or firmer |
| g) integration | 7) to approve a written agreement and make it official by signing it |
| h) competition | 8) the right to vote in national elections |
| i) doctrine | 9) a body of people who have the power to make and change laws |
| j) reinforce | 10) all the people in a country or an area who have the right to vote |
№10 Переведите 2, 3, 4, 7 абзацы текста на русский язык.
Constitutional Government
1) Constitutional government is defined by the existence of a constitution - which may be a legal instrument or merely a set of fixed norms or principles generally accepted as the fundamental law of the policy - that effectively controls the exercise of political power. The essence of constitutionalism is the control of power by its distribution among several state organs or offices in such a way that they are each subjected to reciprocal controls and forced to cooperate in formulating the will of the state.
2) Although constitutional government in this sense flourished in England and in some other historical systems for a considerable period, it is only recently that it has been associated with forms of mass participation in politics. In England, for example, constitutional government was not harnessed to political democracy until after the Reform Act of 1832 and subsequent 19th-century extensions of the suffrage. In the contemporary world, however, constitutional governments are also generally democracies, and in most cases they are referred to as constitutional democracies or constitutional-democratic systems.
3) The contemporary political systems that combine constitutionalism and democracy share a common basis in the primacy they accord to the will of the majority of the people as expressed in free elections. In all such systems, political parties are key institutions, for they are the agencies by which majority opinion in a modern mass electorate is mobilized and expressed. Indeed, the history of the political party in its modern form is coincidental with the development of contemporary constitutional-democratic systems. In each case, the transition from the older forms of constitutionalism to modern constitutional democracy was accompanied by the institutionalization of parties and the development of techniques of party competition.
4) The essential functions of political parties in a constitutional democracy are the integration of a multitude of interests, beliefs, and values into one or more programs or proposals for change and the nomination of party members for elective office in the government. In both functions, the party serves as a link between the rulers and the ruled: in the first case by allowing the electorate to register an opinion on policy and in the second by giving the people a chance to choose their rulers. Of course, the centralized, autocratically directed, and ideologically orthodox one-party systems of totalitarian regimes perform neither of these functions.
5) The two major types of constitutional democracy in the modern world are exemplified by the United States and Great Britain. The United States is the leading example of the presidential system of constitutional democracy; Britain, although its system is sometimes referred to as a cabinet system in recognition of the Cabinet in the government, is the classic example of the parliamentary system.