Физические законы, переменные, принципы (стр. 2 из 3)

The principle, put forth by P. de Fermat, states that the pathtaken by a ray of light between any two points in a system isalways the path that takes the least time.

Fermi paradox

E. Fermi's conjecture, simplified with the phrase, "Where arethey?" questioning that if the Galaxy is filled with intelligentand technological civilizations, why haven't they come to us yet?There are several possible answers to this question, but since weonly have the vaguest idea what the right conditions for life andintelligence in our Galaxy, it and Fermi's paradox are no morethan speculation.

Gauss' law (K.F. Gauss)

The electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to thealgebraic sum of electric charges contained within that closedsurface.

Gauss' law for magnetic fields (K.F. Gauss)

The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero; no magneticcharges exist.

Grandfather paradox

A paradox proposed to discount time travel and show why itviolates causality. Say that your grandfather builds a timemachine. In the present, you use his time machine to go back intime a few decades to a point before he married his wife (yourgrandmother). You meet him to talk about things, and an argumentensues (presumably he doesn't believe that you're hisgrandson/granddaughter), and you accidentally kill him.

If he died before he met your grandmother and never hadchildren, then your parents could certainly never have met (one ofthem didn't exist!) and could never have given birth to you. Inaddition, if he didn't live to build his time machine, what areyou doing here in the past alive and with a time machine, if youwere never born and it was never built?

Hall effect

When charged particles flow through a tube which has both anelectric field and a magnetic field (perpendicular to the electricfield) present in it, only certain velocities of the chargedparticles are preferred, and will make it undeviated through thetube; the rest will be deflected into the sides. This effect isexploited in such devices as the mass spectrometer and in theThompson experiment. This is called the Hall effect.

Hawking radiation (S.W. Hawking; 1973)

The theory that black holes emit radiation like any other hotbody. Virtual particle-antiparticle pairs are constantly beingcreated in supposedly empty space. Every once in a while, onewill be created in the vicinity of a black hole's event horizon.One of these particles might be catpured by the black hole,forever trapped, while the other might escape the black hole'sgravity. The trapped particle, which would have negative energy(by definition), would reduce the mass of the black hole, and theparticle which escaped would have positive energy. Thus, from adistant, one would see the black hole's mass decrease and aparticle escape the vicinity; it would appear as if the black holewere emitting radiation. The rate of emission has a negativerelationship with the mass of the black hole; massive black holesemit radiation relatively slowly, while smaller black holes emitradiation -- and thus decrease their mass -- more rapidly.

Heisenberg uncertainty principle (W. Heisenberg; 1927)

A principle, central to quantum mechanics, which states that themomentum (mass times velocity) and the position of a particlecannot both be known to infinite accuracy; the more you know aboutone, the lest you know about the other.

It can be illustrated in a fairly clear way as follows: Tosee something (let's say an electron), we have to fire photons atit, so they bounce off and come back to us, so we can "see" it.If you choose low-frequency photons, with a low energy, they donot impart much momentum to the electron, but they give you a veryfuzzy picture, so you have a higher uncertainty in position sothat you can have a higher certainty in momentum. On the otherhand, if you were to fire very high-energy photons (x-rays orgammas) at the electron, they would give you a very clear pictureof where the electron is (high certainty in position), but wouldimpart a great deal of momentum to the electron (higheruncertainty in momentum). In a more generalized sense, the uncertainty principle tellsus that the act of observing changes the observed in fundamentalway.

Hooke's law (R. Hooke)

The stress applied to any solid is proportional to the strain itproduces within the elastic limit for that solid. The constant ofthat proportionality is the Young modulus of elasticity for thatsubstance.

Hubble constant; H₀ (E.P. Hubble; 1925)

The constant which determines the relationship between thedistance to a galaxy and its velocity of recession due to theexpansion of the Universe. It is not known to great accuracy, butis believed to lie between 49 and 95

Hubble's law (E.P. Hubble; 1925)

A relationship discovered between distance and radial velocity.The further away a galaxy is away from is, the faster it isreceding away from us. The constant of proportionality isHubble's constant, H₀. The cause is interpreted as the expansionof space itself.

Huygens' construction; Huygens' principle (C. Huygens)

The mechanics propagation of a wave of light is equivalent toassuming that every point on the wavefront acts as point source ofwave emission.

Ideal gas constant; universal molar gas constant; R

The constant that appears in the ideal gas equation. It is equalto 8.314 34.

Ideal gas equation

An equation which sums up the ideal gas laws in one simpleequation. It states that the product of the pressure and thevolume of a sample of ideal gas is equal to the product of theamount of gas present, the temperature of the sample, and theideal gas constant.

Ideal gas laws

Boyle's law. The pressure of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas at constant temperature.

Charles' law. The volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the thermodynamic temperature at constant pressure.

The pressure law. The pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the thermodynamic temperature at constant volume.

Joule-Thomson effect; Joule-Kelvin effect (J. Joule, W. Thomson)

The change in temperature that occurs when a gas expands into aregion of lower pressure.

Joule's laws

Joule's first law. The heat produced when an electric current flows through a resistance for a specified time is equal to the square of the current multiplied by the resistivity multiplied by the time.

Joule's second law. The internal energy of an ideal gas is independent of its volume and pressure, depending only on its temperature.

Josephson effects (B.D. Josephson; 1962)

Electrical effects observed when two superconducting materials areseparated by a thin layer of insulating material.

Kepler's laws (J. Kepler)

Kepler's first law. A planet orbits the Sun in an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.

Kepler's second law. A ray directed from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

Kepler's third law. The square of the period of a planet's orbit is proportional to the cube of that planet's semimajor axis; the constant of proportionality is the same for all planets.

Kerr effect (J. Kerr; 1875)

The ability of certain substances to differently refract lightwaves whose vibrations are in different directions when thesubstance is placed in an electric field.

Kirchhoff's law of radiation (G.R. Kirchhoff)

The emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptance at the sametemperature.

Kirchhoff's rules (G.R. Kirchhoff)

The loop rule. The sum of the potential differences encountered in a round trip around any closed loop in a circuit is zero.

The point rule. The sum of the currents toward a branch point is equal to the sum of the currents away from the same branch point.

Kohlrausch's law (F. Kohlrausch)

If a salt is dissolved in water, the conductivity of the solutionis the sum of two values -- one depending on the positive ions andthe other on the negative ions.

Lambert's laws (J.H. Lambert)

Lambert's first law. The illuminance on a surface illuminated by light falling on it perpendicularly from a point source is proportional to the inverse square of the distance between the surface and the source.

Lambert's second law. If the rays meet the surface at an angle, then the illuminance is also proportional to the cosine of the angle with the normal.

Lambert's third law. The luminous intensity of light decreases exponentially with the distance that it travels through an absorbing medium.

Landauer's principle

A principle which states that it doesn't explicitly take energy tocompute data, but rather it takes energy to erase any data,since erasure is an important step in computation.

Laplace's equation (P. Laplace)

For steady-state heat conduction in one dimension, the temperaturedistribution is the solution to Laplace's equation, which statesthat the second derivative of temperature with respect todisplacement is zero.

Laue pattern (M. von Laue)

The pattern produced on a photographic film when high-frequencyelectromagnetic waves (such as x-rays) are fired at a crystallinesolid.

Laws of conservation

A law which states that, in a closed system, the total quantity ofsomething will not increase or decrease, but remain exactly thesame. For physical quantities, it states that something canneither be created nor destroyed.

The most commonly seen are the laws of conservation of mass-energy (formerly two conservation laws before A. Einstein), ofelectric charge, of linear momentum, and of angular momentum.There are several others that deal more with particle physics,such as conservation of baryon number, of strangeness, etc., whichare conserved in some fundamental interactions but not others.

Law of reflection

For a wavefront intersecting a reflecting surface, the angle ofincidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Laws of black hole dynamics

First law of black hole dynamics. For interactions between black holes and normal matter, the conservation laws of total energy, total momentum, angular momentum, and electric charge, hold.

Second law of black hole dynamics. With black hole interactions, or interactions between black holes and normal matter, the sum of the surface areas of all black holes involved can never decrease.

Laws of thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics. The change in internal energy of a system is the sum of the heat transferred to or from the system and the work done on or by the system.

Second law of thermodynamics. The entropy -- a measure of the unavailability of a system's energy to do useful work -- of a closed system tends to increase with time.

Third law of thermodynamics. For changes involving only perfect crystalline solids at absolute zero, the change of the total entropy is zero.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics. If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then all three bodies are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Lawson criterion (J.D. Lawson)

A condition for the release of energy from a thermonuclearreactor. It is usually stated as the minimum value for theproduct of the density of the fuel particles and the containmenttime for energy breakeven. For a half-and-half mixture ofdeuterium and tritium at ignition temperature, n_Gt is between10¹⁴ and 10¹⁵ s/cm³.

Le Chatelier's principle (H. Le Chatelier; 1888)

If a system is in equilibrium, then any change imposed on thesystem tends to shift the equilibrium to reduce the effect of thatapplied change.

Lenz's law (H.F. Lenz; 1835)

An induced electric current always flows in such a direction thatit opposes the change producing it.

Loschmidt constant; Loschmidt number; N_L

The number of particles per unit volume of an ideal gas atstandard temperature and pressure. It has the value 2.68719^.10²⁵ m^-3.

Lumeniferous aether

A substance, which filled all the empty spaces between matter,which was used to explain what medium light was "waving" in. Nowit has been discredited, as Maxwell's equations imply thatelectromagnetic radiation can propagate in a vacuum, since theyare disturbances in the electromagnetic field rather thantraditional waves in some substance, such as water waves.

Lyman series

The series which describes the emission spectrum of hydrogen whenelectrons are jumping to the ground state. All of the lines arein the ultraviolet.

Mach's principle (E. Mach; 1870s)

The inertia of any particular particle or particles of matter isattributable to the interaction between that piece of matter andthe rest of the Universe. Thus, a body in isolation would have noinertia.

Magnus effect

A rotating cylinder in a moving fluid drags some of the fluidaround with it, in its direction of rotation. This increases thespeed in that region, and thus the pressure is lower.Consequently, there is a net force on the cylinder in thatdirection, perpendicular to the flow of the fluid. This is calledthe Magnus effect.

Malus's law (E.L. Malus)

The light intensity travelling through a polarizer is proportionalto the initial intensity of the light and the square of the cosineof the angle between the polarization of the light ray and thepolarization axis of the polarizer.

Maxwell's demon (J.C. Maxwell)

A thought experiment illustrating the concepts of entropy. Wehave a container of gas which is partitioned into two equal sides;each side is in thermal equilibrium with the other. The walls(and the partition) of the container are a perfect insulator. Now imagine there is a very small demon who is waiting at thepartition next to a small trap door. He can open and close thedoor with negligible work. Let's say he opens the door to allow afast-moving molecule to travel from the left side to the right, orfor a slow-moving molecule to travel from the right side to the left, and keeps it closed for all other molecules. The net effectwould be a flow of heat -- from the left side to the right -- eventhough the container was in thermal equilibrium. This is clearlya violation of the second law of thermodynamics. So where did we go wrong? It turns out that information hasto do with entropy as well. In order to sort out the moleculesaccording to speeds, the demon would be having to keep a memory ofthem -- and it turns out that increase in entropy of the simplemaintenance of this simple memory would more than make up for thedecrease in entropy due to the heat flow.

Maxwell's equations (J.C. Maxwell; 1864)

Four elegant equations which describe classical electromagnetismin all its splendor. They are:

Gauss' law. The electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the algebraic sum of electric charges contained within that closed surface.

Gauss' law for magnetic fields. The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero; no magnetic charges exist.

Faraday's law. The line integral of the electric flux around a closed curve is proportional to the instantaneous time rate of change of the magnetic flux through a surface bounded by that closed curve.

Ampere's law, modified form. The line integral of the magnetic flux around a closed curve is proportional to the sum of two terms: first, the algebraic sum of electric currents flowing through that closed curve; and second, the instantaneous time rate of change of the electric flux through a surface bounded by that closed curve.