1.Определение– это членпредложения,указывающийна признакпредмета иотвечающийна вопрос «какой?».Оно относитсяк существительному.В английскомязыке наиболеетипичнымиявляются атрибутивныегруппы A+N(прилагательное+ существительное),например, animportantproblem– важная проблема.Однако оченьраспространённымиявляются номинативныеатрибутивныегруппы, гдеопределениевыраженосуществительнымN1+N2,например, spacemissions– космическиеполёты илиполёты в космос.
Трудностьноминативныхгрупп N1+N2для переводазаключаетсяв том, что нужноуметь найтиосновное словов цепочексуществительныхс тем, чтобыпредшествующиеему слова перевестикак определения.Случаи, когдаN1эквивалентносуществительномув именительномпадеже, например,signal-generator– (сигнал-генератор)очень редки.Зачастую дажедвухкомпонентныеатрибутивныегруппы нужнопереводитьцелым придаточнымпредложением,например, paypocket– конверт, вкотором выдаётсязаработнаяплата.
Внаучно-техническойлитературенаиболееупотребительнымиявляютсядвухкомпонентныеатрибутивныегруппы типаN1+N2.
Номинативныеатрибутивныегруппы в техническойлитературемогут включатьдо шести существительных.При переводетаких цепочексуществительных,несущее большуюсмысловуюнагрузку, ставитсяна первое место.Например, waterenergy pressure – давлениеза счёт энергииводы.
Науровне предложениявыделениеатрибутивныхгрупп облегчаетсяналичием рядапризнаков. Таксуффикс у основного(последнегов цепочке)существительногопомогает найтистоящие передним определения.
2.Ватрибутивнойгруппе, независимоот её количественногосостава, основнымсуществительнымявляется последнееслово, а предшествующиеему – определениями.
3.Эквивалентноматрибутивнойгруппы N1+N2являетсясочетание двухсуществительных,соединённыхпредлогом «of»,причём онимогут подвергатьсявзаимнойтрансформации,например, thestructurereliability= thereliabilityofthestructure= надёжностьконструкции.
4. В атрибутивныхгруппах типаA+N1+N2,где А – прилагательное,и N1+N2+N3основным являетсяпоследнеесуществительное,а остальные– определенияк нему.
ПереводA+N1+N2можетсовпадать спорядком следованияслов в атрибутивнойгруппе, например:narrowvacuumvessel– узкий вакуумныйсосуд. Однаково многих случаяхпри переводеA+N1+N2и N1+N2+N3необходимо,как правило,сначала перевестиосновное (последнеесуществительное),а затем – определенияк нему. Порядокперевода словв атрибутивныхгруппах можетбыть различными определяетсяпо смыслу, например:Lowtemperaturephysics– физика низкихтемператур.
5.Выделениеатрибутивнойгруппы N1+N2облегчаетсяналичием различныхсуффиксовсуществительногоN2(-er(-or),-ment,-ion(-tion,-sion)),например: Wecomparethelevelsofmachinevibrationswithbiologicalsystems.
6.Наличиеявногосказуемого(is, are, was, were, have, had, has, must, can, may) –облегчаетпоискатрибутивнойгруппыN1+N2,выступающейвфункцииподлежащего,например:Sound waves are analyzed by the computer every one-hundredth of asecond.
7.АтрибутивнаягруппаN1+N2можетвходитьвсоставподлежащегоивводитьсяприпомощиразличныхпредлогов(of, at, in), например:A new type of laser beam has been developed by Byelorussianscientists, где,N1+N2/laser beam/,стоящеепередявнымсказуемым«has been developed», вводитсявгруппуподлежащегоприпомощипредлога“of” (новыйтиплазерноголуча).
8.Заатрибутивнойгруппой подлежащегоN1+N2может стоятьнеявное сказуемое.Оно может бытьвыражено словомбез предлогов,местоименийи т.д., согласующимсяс подлежащимпо правилупротивоположностиокончания s,или словом с–ed,например: Microwaveenergyentersthecavitythroughaholeinthewall.Слово entersсогласуетсяпо правилупротивоположности“s”со словом energyи образует паруподлежащего-сказуемого(energyenters),следовательно,слово microwave(N1)является определениемк слову energy(N2)и переводится«энергия микроволн».
9.Атрибутивнаягруппа N1+N2может входитьв состав второстепенныхчленов предложения– определения,дополнения,обстоятельстваи находитьсяв его правойчасти послесказуемого,например: Theglueisalreadyusedintheproductionofcartires,где N1+N2(cartires)входит в составпредложногодополнения.
10sentences:
1)Liquid nitrogen can be contained only in a special vessel.
2)Long range rockets were used in war since 1934.
3)Steel pipes are more reliable than plastic pipes.
4)Atomic power station Chernobyl exploded in 1986.
5)Electric chair has been used in execution.
6)Space ship is very expensive.
7)Electric lamp is used in every house.
8)Rock crystal is not a rare mineral.
9)Laser printer can print about 20 pages per minute.
10)Computer revolution began in 80s.
Text:
Thefirst man-made satellite was launched on October 4, 1957. Itdemonstrated to the whole world the boundless opportunities of ourcountry in science and technology. People everywhere in the world nowknow the Russian world “Sputnik”.
It wasJuri Gagarin’s flight in 1961 that began an era of manned spaceflights on orbital space stations.
TheSoviet Union did much in the exploration and use of outer space forthe benefit of man. Highly qualified specialists performed scientificexperiments aboard space stations. They used the latest automaticinstruments and computers in their work.
TheUSSR made great contribution to extensive internationalcooperation in space research and to the use of outer space forpeaceful purposes.
Some years agonine socialist countries adopted ajoint space research program.
The Soviet andinternational crews performed a large number of astrophysical,geophysical and other research experiments. Spaceflights are no longer regarded as being experiments by brave peopleor even by individual countries. The Intercosmos of the socialistcommunity countries proves the advantages of joint efforts.
The Soviet Union is also successfully cooperating inspace research with France, India, the USA and Sweden.
It pays greatattention tothe manned flights program which helps to solve a number ofscientific and applied economic problems.
When we talkabout 2 things, we can "compare" them. We can see if theyare the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways anddifferent in other ways.
A B
Wecan use comparative adjectives to describe the differences. "Ais biggerthan B."
There are twoways to form a comparative adjective:
short adjectives: add '-er'
longadjectives: use 'more'
Short adjectives | |
| old, fast |
| happy, easy |
Normal rule:add '-er' | old > older |
Variation:if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r | late > later |
Variation:if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double thelast consonant | big > bigger |
Variation:if the adjective ends in -y, change the -y to -i | happy > happier |
Long adjectives | |
| modern, pleasant |
| expensive, intellectual |
Normal rule: use 'more' | modern > more modern |
Tip.With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or'more':
quiet > quieter/more quiet
clever >cleverer/more clever
narrow >narrower/more narrow
simple >simpler/more simple
Exception!The following adjectives have irregular forms:
good > better
well(healthy) > better
bad >worse
far> farther/further
We usecomparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or1,000,000 things, only 2 things).
Often, thecomparative adjective is followed by 'than'.
Lookat these examples:
John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. Heis taller thanJohn.
Americais big. But Russia is bigger.
Iwant to have a more powerfulcomputer.
IsFrench more difficultthan English?
If we talk aboutthe two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them like this:
Earth | Mars | ||
| Diameter (km) | 12,760 | 6,790 | Mars is smallerthan Earth. |
| Distance from Sun (million km) | 150 | 228 | Mars is moredistant from the Sun. |
| Length of day (hours) | 24 | 25 | A day on Marsis slightly longerthan a day on Earth. |
| Moons | 1 | 2 | Mars has moremoons than Earth. |
| Surface temperature (°C) | 22 | -23 | Mars is colderthan Earth. |
Comparisonis between 2things: "A is bigger than B."
A B
Butthe superlativeis the extreme between 3 or morethings. "A is the biggest."
A B C
Aswith comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlativeadjective:
short adjectives: add '-est'
longadjectives: use 'most'
We also usuallyadd 'the' at the beginning.
Short adjectives | |
| 1-syllable adjectives | old, fast |
| 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y | happy, easy |
Normal rule:add '-est' | old > the oldest |
Variation:if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st | late > the latest |
Variation:if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double thelast consonant | big > the biggest |
Variation:if the adjective ends in -y, change the -y to -i | happy > the happiest |
Long adjectives | |
| 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y | modern, pleasant |
| all adjectives of 3 or more syllables | expensive, intellectual |
Normal rule: use 'most' | modern > the most modern |
TipWith some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or'most':
quiet > the quietest/most quiet
clever> the cleverest/most clever
narrow> the narrowest/most narrow
simple> the simplest/most simple
Exception!The following adjectives have irregular forms:
good > the best
bad >the worst
far> the furthest
We use asuperlative adjective to describe 1 thing in a group of 3 or morethings.
Lookat these examples:
John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chrisis the tallest.
America,China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is thebiggest.
MountEverest is the highestmountain in the world.
If we talk aboutthe three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlativeslike this:
Earth | Mars | Jupiter | ||
| Diameter (km) | 12,760 | 6,790 | 142,800 | Jupiter is the biggest. |
| Distance from Sun (million km) | 150 | 228 | 778 | Jupiter is themost distant from the Sun. |
| Length of day (hours) | 24 | 25 | 10 | Jupiter has theshortest day. |
| Moons | 1 | 2 | 16 | Jupiter has themost moons. |
| Surface temperature (°C) | 22 | -23 | -150 | Jupiter is the coldest. |
When we compareone thing with itself, we do not use "the":
England is coldestin winter. (not the coldest)
Myboss is most generous when we get a big order. (notthe most generous)
Thereare 2 ways how the adverbs form their comparative and superlative.
1.Adverbs in -lyform their comparative and superlative with moreandmost.(But not early)
Couldyou say that moreslowly,please?
Tom can shoot themost accurately.
Youwill just have to get up earlier.
2.Adverbs with the same form as adjectives form their comparative andsuperlative with -erand-est.
Sarahrun the fastest.
Someadverbs form their comparative and superlative irregularly.
Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
| badly | worse | worst |
| well | better | best |
| little | less | least |
| far | farther, further | farthest, furthest |
| much | more | most |
Comparisonas...as, less etc.
Weuse as...as tocompare 2 things that are the same in the same way.
I cannot docrosswords as quickly as you.
Lessand leastare the opposites of moreand most.
The old man's son visits him lessoften nowadays.
Wecan repeat a comparative after andto talk about a change in something else.
They went fasterand faster down the hill.
Weuse the+comparative totalk about a change in one thing which causes a change in somethingelse.
The moreyou practise, the better youwill play.
Tensentences:
Iam not the tallest student in our group.
JamesHetfield plays electric guitar much better than I.
Ithink that tomorrow it will be colder than today.
Onmy girlfriend’s birthday I bought the most expensive presentI could afford.
Sevastopolis the most picturesque city in Crimea.
T-1line Internet connection is much faster than dial-up one, howeverit is more expensive.
Themore I study, the better will be results.
Onaverage, people eat about twice as much proteins as they need.
Calculusis simpler than statistics.
10) Mice are smaller thanelephants.
Text(~1500symbols):
The firstcomputers with their electronics filled moreroom thanup-to-date computers do. Photographs of early computers show men andwomen in business suits and laboratory coats standing in the middleof a room surrounded by a U-shape machine. In reality, peopleoperating and developing thefirstcomputers did not wear suits. Air-conditioning was poorerthanpeople needed and they dressed in T-shirts and tennis shoes.
Thedevelopment of the transistor in 1948 made it possible to buildsmallerelectronic devices. Computers became smallerand smallerand in our days personal computer can easily be fitted on the desk.Notebooks have lesssize thanpersonal computers and they widely used by businessmen. For themost pretentiouspeople engineers created a Pocket personal computer that can findroom in pocket. Pocket PC is thesmallestPC, on the other hand, it is theslowestand the leastpowerful thanother personal computers. For people who do not need features likeInfrared or Bluetooth connection or color display that offers PocketPC, Palm designed small electronic organizer. It has fewerfeatures and it is lesspowerful thanPocket PC, but it is also lessexpensive.
Computerdesigners are trying to create morefriendlyinterface computer, because it is sold better.The one of themost importantfactors is a noise uttered by computer. Nobody likes noise and peopleare ready to pay moreto buy quieterPC.
Theprogress never stops and smaller,more powerful and quieter computerswill appear soon.
Canand couldare modal auxiliary verbs. Be able touses the verb "to be" as a main verb. It is not anauxiliary verb, but we look at it here for convenience.
Canis an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use "can"to:
talk about possibility and ability
makerequests
askfor or give permission
subject+ can + main verb
The main verb isalways the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject | auxiliary verb | main verb | ||
| + | I | can | play | tennis. |
| - | He | cannot | play | tennis. |
can't | ||||
| ? | Can | you | play | tennis? |
Noticethat:
Can isinvariable. There is only one form of can.
Themain verb is alwaysthe bare infinitive.
Weuse can totalk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
She candrive a car.
Johncan speak Spanish.
Icannothear you. (I can'thear you.)
Canyou hear me?
Normally,we use canfor the present. But it is possible to use canwhen we make present decisions about future ability.
Can you help mewith my homework? (present)
Sorry.I'm busy today. But I canhelp you tomorrow. (future)
Weoften use canin a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a realquestion - we do not really want to know if the person is able to dosomething, we want them to do it! The use of canin this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):
Can you make acup of coffee, please.
Canyou put the TV on.
Canyou come here a minute.
Canyou be quiet!
Wesometimes use canto ask or give permission for something:
Can I smoke inthis room?
Youcan'tsmoke here, but you cansmoke in the garden.
(Notethat we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of canfor permission is informal.)
Couldis an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use "could"to:
talk about past possibility or ability
makerequests
subject+ could + main verb
The main verb isalways the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").
subject | auxiliary verb | main verb | ||
| + | My grandmother | could | speak | Japanese. |
| - | She | could not | speak | Chinese. |
couldn't | ||||
| ? | Could | your grandmother | speak | Japanese? |
Noticethat:
Could isinvariable. There is only one form of could.
Themain verb is alwaysthe bare infinitive.
Weuse couldto talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able orfree to do:
I couldswim when I was 5 years old.
Mygrandmother couldspeak seven languages.
Whenwe arrived home, we could notopen the door. (...couldn't open the door.)
Couldyou understand what he was saying?
Weuse could(positive) and couldn't(negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk aboutone special occasion in the past, we use beable (positive) and couldn't(negative). Look at these examples:
Past | ||
General | Specific Occasion | |
| + | My grandmothercouldspeak Spanish. | A man fell intothe river yesterday. The police wereable to save him. |
| - | My grandmothercouldn'tspeak Spanish. | A man fell intothe river yesterday. The police couldn'tsave him. |
Weoften use couldin a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of couldin this way is fairly polite (formal):
Could you tellme where the bank is, please?
Couldyou send me a catalogue, please?
Althoughwe look at be able tohere, it is nota modal verb. It is simply the verb "to be" plus anadjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at "be ableto" here because we sometimes use it instead of "can"and "could". We use "be able to":
to talk about ability
Thestructure of be able tois:
subject+ be + able + infinitive
subject | be | able | infinitive | |
| + | I | am | able | to drive. |
| - | She | is not | able | to drive. |
isn't | ||||
| ? | Are | you | able | to drive? |
Noticethat be able tois possible in all tenses, for example:
I was able todrive...
Iwill be able todrive...
Ihave been able todrive...
Noticetoo that be able tohas an infinitive form:
I would like to beable to speak Chinese.
Weuse be able toto express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning: havingthe power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I amable to swim", it is like saying"I canswim". We sometimes use "be able to" instead of "can"or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possiblein all tenses—but "can" is possible only in thepresent and "could" is possible only in the past forability. In addition, "can" and "could" have noinfinitive form. So we use "be able to" when we want to useother tenses or the infinitive. Look at these examples:
I have been able toswim since I was five. (present perfect)
Youwill be able tospeak perfect English very soon. (future simple)
Iwould like to be able tofly an airplane. (infinitive)
Weoften use have toto say that something is obligatory, for example:
Children have to go to school.
"Haveto" is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience,but in fact it is nota modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the "have to"structure, "have" is a mainverb. The structure is:
subject+ auxiliary verb + have + infinitive (with "to")
Look at theseexamples in the simple tense:
subject | auxiliary verb | main verb "have" | infinitive (with "to") | ||
| + | She | has | towork. | ||
| - | I | do not | have | tosee | the doctor. |
| ? | Did | you | have | togo | to school? |
Ingeneral, "have to" expresses impersonalobligation. The subject of "have to" is obliged or forcedto act by a separate, external power (for example, the Law or schoolrules). "Have to" is objective. Look at theseexamples:
In France, you haveto drive on the right.
InEngland, most schoolchildren have towear a uniform.
Johnhas towear a tie at work.
In each of theabove cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion or idea. Theobligation is imposed from outside.
Wecan use "have to" in alltenses, and also with modalauxiliaries. We conjugate it just like any other main verb. Here aresome examples:
subject | auxiliary verb | main verb "have" | infinitive | ||
| past simple | I | had | to work | yesterday. | |
| present simple | I | have | to work | today. | |
| future simple | I | will | have | to work | tomorrow. |
| present continuous | She | is | having | to wait. | |
| present perfect | We | have | had | to change | the time. |
| modal (may) | They | may | have | to do | it again. |
Weoften use mustto say that something is essential or necessary, for example:
I must go.
"Must"is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. Thestructure is:
subject+ must + main verb
The main verb isthe base verb (infinitive without "to").
Lookat these examples:
subject | auxiliaryverb | main verb | |
| I | must | go | home. |
| You | must | visit | us. |
| We | must | stop | now. |
Ingeneral, "must" expresses personalobligation. "Must" expresses what the speakerthinks is necessary. "Must" is subjective.Look at these examples:
I must stop smoking.
Youmustvisit us soon.
Hemust work harder.
In each of theabove cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of theperson speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is notimposed from outside.
Wecan use "must" to talk about the presentor the future.Look at these examples:
I must go now. (present)
Imust call my mother tomorrow. (future)
Thereis no past tensefor "must". We use "have to" to talk about thepast.
Weuse must notto say that something is not permitted or allowed, for example:
Passengers must not talk to the driver.
"Must"is an auxiliary verb.It is followed by a main verb.The structure for "Must Not" is:
Subject + "Must Not" + Main Verb
The Main Verb isthe base verb (infinitive without "to").
"Must Not"is often contracted to "mustn't".
Lookat these examples:
subject | auxiliary "Must"+ "Not" | main verb | |
| I | mustn't | forget | my keys. |
| You | mustn't | disturb | him. |
| Students | must not | be | late. |
NB:like all auxiliary verbs, "must" cannotbe followed by an infinitive. So, we say:
You mustn't arrive late. (notYou mustn't to arrive late.)
"MustNot" expresses prohibition - something that is notpermitted, not allowed. The prohibitioncan be subjective (the speaker's opinion) or objective (a real law orrule). Look at these examples:
I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective)
Youmustn't watch so much television. (subjective)
Studentsmust not leave bicycles here. (objective)
Policemenmust not drink on duty. (objective)
Weuse "Must Not" to talk about the presentor the future:
Visitors must not smoke. (present)
Imustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)
Wecannot use "Must Not" for the past.We use another structure to talk about the past, for example:
We were not allowed to enter.
I couldn't parkoutside the shop.
Peoplemay sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shalland will,or even that today nobody uses shall(except in offers such as "Shall I call a taxi?"). This isnot really true. The difference between shalland willis often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them in speakingwith 'll.But the difference does exist.
Thetruth is that there are twoconjugations for the verb will:
1stConjugation (objective, simple statement of fact) | ||||
Person | Verb | Example | Contraction | |
| Singular | I | shall | I shall be in London tomorrow. | I'll |
| you | will | You will see a large building on the left. | You'll | |
| he, she, it | will | He will be wearing blue. | He'll | |
| Plural | we | shall | We shall not be there when you arrive. | We shan't |
| you | will | You will find his office on the 7th floor. | You'll | |
| they | will | They will arrive late. | They'll | |
2nd Conjugation (subjective, strongassertion, promise or command) | ||||
Person | Verb | Example | Contraction | |
| Singular | I | will | I will do everything possible to help. | I'll |
| you | shall | You shall be sorry for this. | You'll | |
| he, she, it | shall | It shall be done. | It'll | |
| Plural | we | will | We will not interfere. | We won't |
| you | shall | You shall do as you're told. | You'll | |
| they | shall | They shall give one month's notice. | They'll | |
It is true thatthis difference is not universally recognized. However, let those whomake assertions such as "Americans never use 'shall'"peruse a good American English dictionary, or many American legaldocuments, which often contain phrases such as:
Each party shallgive one month's notice in writing in the event of termination.
Note thatexactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It isperfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write, for example:
I should begrateful if you wouldkindly send me your latest catalogue.
Tensentences:
Children have to go to school.
Imust go to the university.
Peoplemustn’t drive a car when they drink alcohol.
Ineedn’t do math today, I can do it later.
Ishould study harder before exams.
Elephantsand mice can’t fly.
Icould play snooker much better two years ago than I can now.
I can’t have made a mistake inmy calculations because I used a calculator.
Can you run 100 meters in 5.5seconds? 10)
Studentsmustn’t eat or drink during the lection.
Texts:
Combinatorialmathematics.
Specialistsin a broad range of fields haveto deal withproblems that involve combinations made up of letters, numbers or anyother objects.
The field of mathematics that studiesproblems of how many different combinations canbe built out of a specific number of objects is called combinatorialmathematics (combinatorics).
This branch of mathematics has itsorigin in the 16thcentury, in the gambling games that played such a large part in highsociety in those times. These games gave the initial impetus todevelop combinatorial mathematics and the theory of probability.
Italian andFrench mathematicians were the first to enumerate the variouscombinations achieved in games of dice. Further advances in thetheory of combinations were connected with the names of Germanscientists.
In recent years combinatorialmathematics has seen extensive developments associated with graterinterest in problems of discrete mathematics. Combinatorial methodscanbe employed in solving transport problems, in particular scheduling;the scheduling of production facilities and of the sale of goods.Links have been established between combinatorics and problems oflinear programming, statistics, etc. Combinatorial methods are usedin coding and decoding and in the solution of other problems ofinformation theory.
Thecombinatorial approach also plays a significant role in purelymathematical problems such as the theory of groups and theirrepresentations, in the study of the main principles of geometry,some branches of algebra, etc.
Probability.
Probability is a mathematicalexpression of the likelihood of an event. Every probability is afraction. The largest probability canbe 1. The smallest probability canbe is 0, meaning that it’s something that cannothappen. You canfind the probability that something willnot happen bysubtracting the probability that it willhappen from 1. For example, if the weatherman tells you that there isa 0.3 probability of rain today, then there mustbe a 0.7 probability that it won’train.