EATINGTRADITIONS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
Inmost of Asia, especially China, Korea, and Vietnam, the New Yearbegins with the first full moon of the first Chinese lunar month.Specialfoods are eaten in each region.
InChina, foods are prepared ahead (using a knife during New Year'smight "cut luck") and include dishes with names that soundauspicious, such as tangerines (good fortune), fish (surplus), andchestnuts (profit). Meats, fried dishes (such as fried ricedumplings), and alcoholic beverages (which are all considered yang,or strong foods) are also common. In Korea, soup containing smallglutinous rice cakes or steamed dumplings are a must. In Vietnam,bahnchung,a glutinous rice cake filled with meat and beans cooked in bananaleaves is a New Year's specialty. Pork with lotus root and shark finsoup are also favored. Small mandarin trees in full fruit arepurchased for each home as a sign of hospitality.
Onetradition practiced in both China and Vietnam has to do with theannual report on the family's past activities to the gods, who thendetermine the following year's fortune. In Chinese culture, anoffering is made a week before the New Year to the picture of theChinese Kitchen God hung in most homes. The food is usually sweet andsticky, so that when the God departs to Heaven to make his report, hewill only say favorable things (in some regions the lips in thepicture are actually smeared with honey or malt). In Vietnam, it isOngTao(Spirit of the Hearth), he is represented by 3 small stones andhonored at his altar with a sweet soy bean soup and sweet rice cakes.
Thebeginning of the New Year is celebrated by many cultures on January1st. Some celebrations, such as in the U.S., take place on theevening before the new year, featuring drinking, sweets, and generalfrivolity. In Spain and Portugal, it is customary to eat twelvegrapes or raisins at each stroke of the clock at midnight (a similarpractice takes place in the Philippines following the New Year's Evefiesta meal, but only 7 grapes are eaten). In Poland, jelly doughnuts(paczki)aretraditional of New Year's Eve. In Scotland, New Year's Eve is calledHogmanaycomplete with festive partying and foods such as triangularshortbread (calle hogmanays), scones, bannocks, black bun, gingerbread, and haggis,a pudding made from sheep's stomach stuffed with oatmeal and innardsis drenched in Scotch whiskey before it is eaten.
InJapan onNew Year's day, 10 to 20 dishes, collectively calledOsechi ryori,are served. Each dish represents a different value desired for thenew year, such as fish eggs for fertility, root vegetables forstability, black beans for health, kombu(seaweed)for happiness, and mashed sweet potatoes to keep away the evilspirits. Otoso,a special rice wine, is served. In many homes, mochi,a rice cake made by pounding hot rice into a sticky dough istraditional. A Buddhist osonae mochimay be set up to preserve good luck and happiness in futuregenerations. It consists of a large mochi on the bottom, which is thefoundation provided by the older generation. A smaller mochirepresenting the younger generation is placed on top, followed by atangerine symbolizing the generations to come.
InGreece, a sweet bread called vasilopitta isprepared with a coin baked into it for New Year's. The person whogets the piece with the coin in has good luck in the upcoming year.In the U.S. South, black-eyed peas (sometimes known as hoppin' johns)are traditionally served for luck on New Year's day. Throughout muchof the world, the beginning of the new year is seen as an opportunityto celebrate life and influence the future!
EATING TRADITIONSIN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
Thebeginning of the New Year is celebrated by many cultures on January1st. Some celebrations, such as in the U.S., take place on theevening before the new year, featuring drinking, sweets, and generalfrivolity. In Spain and Portugal, it is customary to eat twelvegrapes or raisins at each stroke of the clock at midnight (a similarpractice takes place in the Philippines following the New Year's Evefiesta meal, but only 7 grapes are eaten). In Poland, jelly doughnuts(paczki)aretraditional of New Year's Eve. In Scotland, New Year's Eve is calledHogmanaycomplete with festive partying and foods such as triangularshortbread (calle hogmanays), scones, bannocks, black bun, gingerbread, and haggis,a pudding made from sheep's stomach stuffed with oatmeal and innardsis drenched in Scotch whiskey before it is eaten. It's considered badluck to propose marriage, carry out the garbage, break any glassduring the evening, and good luck to see a dark-haired person as thefirst visitor of the new year (originating during the time a blondViking at the door meant rape and pillage!). Auld Lang Syne, aScottish song dating back to the early 1700s, is sung at midnight. Inother societies, New Year's day is the more significant holiday. InRussia, children receive gifts and ginger cakes are eaten. In Japan,New Year's is a 7-day festival, starting on January 1st (unlike manyAsian cultures which use a lunar calendar--see below--Japan convertedto a solar calendar in 1868). Homes are cleaned, all debts arecleared, and food is prepared ahead for the week so that no cookingis done during the holiday. On New Year's day, 10 to 20 dishes,collectively calledOsechi ryori,are served on a set of nesting, lacquered boxes. Each dish representsa different value desired for the new year, such as fish eggs forfertility, root vegetables for stability, black beans for health,kombu(seaweed)for happiness, and mashed sweet potatoes to keep away the evilspirits. Otoso,a special rice wine, is served. In many homes, mochi,a rice cake made by pounding hot rice into a sticky dough istraditional. A Buddhist osonae mochimay be set up to preserve good luck and happiness in futuregenerations. It consists of a large mochi on the bottom, which is thefoundation provided by the older generation. A smaller mochirepresenting the younger generation is placed on top, followed by atangerine symbolizing the generations to come. Even in regions of theworld where there are no elaborate traditions, favorite family dishesare served on new year's day, or "lucky" dishes are eaten.In Greece, a sweet bread called vasilopittaisprepared with a coin baked into it for New Year's. The person whogets the piece with the coin in has good luck in the upcoming year.In the U.S. South, black-eyed peas (sometimes known as hoppin' johns)are traditionally served for luck on New Year's day. Throughout muchof the world, the beginning of the new year in January is seen as anopportunity to celebrate life and influence the future!
Houses of Parliament
Fromthe center of Westminster Bridge one can have a splendid view of theH. of P. The structure is a remarkable example of Gothicarchitecture. Royal Palaces and houses were built along the banks ofthe Thames in medie’val days, because the water was a busy wayinto and out of London. The H.P. called officially the Palace ofWestmister were a palace for queens and kings. The palace was usedboth as a royal residence and also as a parliament house until the16thcentury. In 1834 the H.P. were destroyed by the fire. Sir CharlesBarry was asked to plan the building and August Pugin wascommissioned to make it look gothic. The result is the Palace ofWestminster. The odd combination of these two men produced a triumph.The H.P. is the biggest Gothic palace in the world, and by far themost impressive. During the Second World War a bomb destroyed theHouse of Commons – the principal chamber in the whole complex It was decided to rebuild it exactly the same size. The H.P. containthe universal symbol of L., Big Ben. B.B. is actually the name of thebiggest bell inside the Clock Tower which forms part of the H.P.
The Palace ofWestminster has two miles of corridors and more than 1000 rooms. WhenParliament is sitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. The Houseof Lords looks more splendid with its beautiful red benches than theHouse of Commons. There is the throne for the Queen and the woolsackfor the Lord Chancellor there. Visitors can watch the Parliament atwork from the Strangers’ Gallery. The Speaker sits on the greenchair.
ParliamentSquare
Westminster Abbey is on one side, the Houses ofParliament on the other. The buildings of the Houses of Parliament isnot old, it dates only from the 19thcentury, and is in the Gothic style. When the Parliament has asitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. It is the national flagof the United Kingdom. Another tower, the Clock Tower, is famous forthe hour bell and the clock named “Big Ben”. Only a shortway from the Houses of Parliament there is one of the most beautifulof all English buildings – W.A., founded in the 11thcentury. There are many tombstones, monuments and statues there. Fornearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of England – 41 inall – have been crowned here. If u go past the magnificenttombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold and precious stonesu will come to the Poets’ Corner. There many of the greatestwriters were buried. Geoffrey Chauser, Samuel Johnson, CharlesDickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling. Burns andByron, Walter Scott and the great American poet Henry WadsworthLongfellow. Here in the Abbey there is also the Grave of the UnknownWarrior that commemorate the men who died on the First World War.
Thesquare has a lot of statues including Richard the Pion-Hearted, andOliver Cromvell. It also has the masterpiece of Sir Henry Mur –the statue of Sir Winston Churchill.
St.Paul’s Cathedral
The City’s greatest monumentand on of the finest Renaissance cathedrals in Europe is St.Paul’sCathedral. The old cathedral was completely destroyed by the GreatFire of London in 1666. People put their belongings in the church,thinking it was safe, but the fire soon reached it. It was so hot itturned the church bells into molten metal. Christopher When a famousEnglish architect, was commissioned to rebuild Saint Paul’s. Hemade several plans before one was accepted. In the Crypt of thechurch you can see scale models of his rejected designs. It tooknearly 35 years to build the Cathedral, being finished in 1710.Running around the interior of the dome is the famous WhisperingGallery. It is called so because you can clearly hear the whispermade by someone who is standing on the opposite side of the gallery.Big Paul, the heaviest bell in the country, is in the northern belltower at the front of Saint Paul’s. It rings every weekday at 1p.m. to let people know that it is lunchtime. Another bell Big Tom,tolls when a monarch or important churchmen die. The church bells inthe other tower are rung on Sundays and to celebrate great occasions.
The City
All the principle streets of Londonlead to the heart of the City, the financial and business center ofGreat Britain. The City is about one square mile in area and only afew thousand people live there. But by day, many people swarm itsstreets and offices. Here there are the Bank of England, The StockExchange and headquarters of many of the richest companies andcorporations in the world. The City’s greatest monument and onof the finest Renaissance cathedrals in Europe is St.Paul’sCathedral. The old cathedral was completely destroyed by the GreatFire of London in 1666. People put their belongings in the church,thinking it was safe, but the fire soon reached it. It was so hot itturned the church bells into molten metal. Christopher When a famousEnglish architect, was commissioned to rebuild Saint Paul’s. Hemade several plans before one was accepted. Running around theinterior of the dome is the famous Whispering Gallery. It is calledso because you can clearly hear the whisper made by someone who isstanding on the opposite side of the gallery.
Tower Bridge is the only Thamesbridge which can be raised. The road over the bridge is built on twocentral sections called bascules, which open two or three times aweek to let ships through. There are displays inside the bridge onits history. (T.S.+W.A.+H.P.)
The position of Great Britain gives it a temperateclimate. Britain lies in the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean. Itis surrounded by the sea which makes the climate warmer in winter andcooler in summer. The Gulf Stream influences the English climategreatly. The climate is not the same in all parts of England. Thewestern part is warmer than the eastern one and it also has morerains. The western hills and mountains shut out some of the mild windfrom the Atlantic. On Western coast gales are always strong. Thesouth-western winds are the most frequent. They usually bring mildweather. There is much humidity in the air. Britain is well known asa foggy country. The annual temperature in London is about 8 degreesC.
Scotland is a part of Britain and Wales. Scotland isbounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the NorthSea, on the southeast by England, southwest by the Irish Sea and onthe west by the Western Isles. Like the climate of the rest of GreatBritain, that of Scotland is subject to the moderating influences ofthe surrounding seas. As a result of these influences, extremeseasonal variations are rare, and temperate winters and cool summersare the outstanding climatic features. Low temperatures, however, arecommon during the winter season in the mountainous districts of theinterior. In the western coastal region, which is subject to themoderating effects of the Gulf Stream, conditions are somewhat milderthan is the east. The average temperature in January is 4 degrees Cand in July is about 15 degrees C. Scotland’s weather issimilar to Wales and England.
Wales is a part of the United Kingdom. It also includesthe mall island off Wales called Anglesey. Wales is bounded on theNorth by the Irish Sea, on the east by the English counties, on theSouth by the Bristol Channel, and the west by Saint George. Wales isalmost all mountains. The tops of the mountains are covered with thesnow. The climate in Wales is very moist and mild like in the UnitedKingdom. The average temperature in January is about 6 degrees C andin July is about 16 degrees C.
Ireland’s climate is mainly determined by itsposition in the north temperate zone and the effect of the warmwaters of the Gulf Stream. The climate is relatively uniformthroughout. The prevailing west winds carry rain from the Atlantic,resulting in heavier rainfall in the western and southern parts ofthe country. Summers are relatively cool, with July and August beingthe warmest months, whilst winters are relatively mild with Januaryand February being the coldest months. Snow falls occasionally inwinter months but it is rarely prolonged and usually only lasts for afew days.
The RoyalResidences
KensingtonPalace is a royal palace in London. Originally a private countryhouse, the building was acquired by William III and Mary II in 1689and was adopted for royal residence by Sir Christopher Wren.Kensington House as it was known became William and Mary’sprincipal residence. For the next 70 years the palace was at thecenter of the life and government of the kingdom and played host tothe courts of William and Mary, Queen Anne, George I and George II.
In the XIX century Kensington was the birthplaceand home of Princess Victoria (later Queen Victoria). By the end of19thcentury, the State Apartments at Kensington Palace were in a very badstate of repair having been used as stores for paintings andfurnishings from other palaces. In April 1897 a decision was made torestore the palace and Parliament agreed to fund the work on thecondition that the building should be opened up to the public. Partsof the palace remains a private residence for members of the royalfamily, the State Apartments and Royal Ceremonial Dress Collectionare open to the public.
BuckinghamPalace is the London home of the Queen and Prince Philip. The Palaceis also the administrative headquarters of the monarchy. The Queenreceives visiting heads of state at the palace and it is here thatthe Queen holds garden parties and bestowed knighthoods and otherhonours. Foot Guards from the Household Division in their distinctivered tunics and black bearskins, can be seen on guard duty outside thepalace daily. The Changing the Guard ceremony now takes place onlyevery other day in the winter but it is still daily in the summermonths. After a serious fire damaged Winsdor Castle in 1993 the Queenallowed the Palace State rooms to be opened to the public for thefirst time, to help pay the Winsdor Castle repair bill.
The Tower of London
The Tower of London doesn’tbelong to the City, though it stood there for almost 900 years. It ismore connected with the royal dynasties than with the world ofbusiness. It was originally built as a fortress to guard the riverapproaches to London. The Tower of London was begun by William theConqueror in 1078 as a castle and palace. Since then it has beenexpanded, and used as an armoury, a zoo, a royal mint and a prison, atreasury and an observatory. A group of ravens live at the Tower. Thetradition goes that if they disappear the building will collapse. Forcenturies a royal zoo was kept in the grounds. It once included apolar bear, which fished and swam in the moat. Now it is a museum andthe Beefeaters (Yeoman Warders) guard the Tower. They used to be themonarch’s private bodyguard. Beefeater was a medieval nicknamefor well-fed servants. They wear a Tudor-style uniform of blue orred. They willingly show visitors the main places of interest. Insome Tower rooms there are inscriptions carved on the walls by formerprisoners. In Salt Tower you can see a complicated astronomical clockcarved by a sixteenth century prisoner accused of black magic.
Trafalgar Square
T.S.is London’s geographical center. It was laid out during theearly part of the 19thcentury to commemorate the naval victory of Britain over the Frenchat Trafalgar in 1805, in which Admiral Lord Nelson took part and wasfatally wounded. The Nelson column with the statue of Admiral Nelsonon top of it is 185 feet (5 metres) high. At the base of the columnyou can see four bronze lions which are guarding it and were castfrom the cannon of battleships. On October 21stthere is a service under the column to commemorate Nelson. The eastand west sides of the square are gracefully flanked by plane trees.Beyond the terrace above the north side stands the National Gallery;on the lawns in front of the Gallery stands a statue of James II, tothe west of the main entrance, and to the east a statue of GeorgeWashington. Among other important buildings surrounding the squareare the church of St.Martin-in-the-Fields. T.S. has long been theplace for political meetings and demonstrations, including those ofthe Chartists who began their march here in 1848. More recently ithas become the terminal point of protest marches. Every year atChristmas time an enormous Christmas tree is erected, the annualgift, since the 2ndWorld War, of the Norwegian people. On New Year’s Eve T.S.. isalways the scene of celebrations. Not far from T.S. there is a quietlittle street with very ordinary houses. So you may be surprised tosee a policeman who is standing at one of the houses. It is DowningStreet and for the last two hundred years at No.10 each PrimeMinister of England has been living there. Downing Street leads toWhitehall. There was a palace here once, where from the 12thto the 16thcentury the English Kings and Queens were living. Now it is just astreet of government offices. Here in the middle of the read there issimple but impressive Cenotaph, the Memorial to the men who died inthe two World Wars.
WestminsterAbbey
W.A was founded in the 11thcentury. It is a fine Gothic building, which stands opposite theHouses of Parliament. It is the work of many hands and differentages. The oldest part of the building dates from the eights century.It was a monastery – the West Minster. In the 11thcentury Edward the Confessor founded a great Norman Abbey. One of thegreater glories of the Abbey is the Chapel of Henry VII. The Chapelis of stone and glass, so wonderfully cut and sculptured that itseems unreal. There are many tombstones, monuments and statues in theAbbey. For nearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of England –41 in all – have been crowned here. If u go past themagnificent tombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold andprecious stones u will come to the Poets’ Corner. There many ofthe greatest writers were buried. Geoffrey Chauser, Samuel Johnson,Charles Dickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling.Burns and Byron, Walter Scott and the great American poet HenryWadsworth Longfellow. Here in the Abbey there is also the Grave ofthe Unknown Warrior that commemorate the men who died on the FirstWorld War.
THE UNITEDSTATES OF AMERICA
The UnitedStates of America, popularly called "The States". "U.S.A","The Land of Liberty" is a vast country stretching acrossthe middle of North America. This country which at one time inhabitedby Red Indians, is now the home of "nation of nations". aspeople from every part of the world have gone to live in this land ofwealth and promise. These settlers met, mingled, and worked withgreat enterprise, and as a result of their efforts, the United Stateshas become one of the most important countries in the world.
In1620 the; PilgrimFathers, a band of Puritans in England who sought freedom of worship,set forth for America in the sailing-ship Mayflower. Three monthsafter leaving Plymouth Harbour, they reached the shores of what isnow called new England, and Founded the America township of Plymouth.Although they often had difficult times with the native Red Indiantribes, the colony soon prospered and more and more settlers joinedthem. The Indians used a new kind of grain, which the settlers called"Indian corn" (now termed maize) and they ate strange birdscalled turkeys. On the fourth Thursday of November the Americanscelebrate Thanksgiving Day with a feast of turkey and Indian corn.
A great manyemigrants went from European countries to America and thirteencolonies were formed, all of them under English rule. The governmentin England, however, took little interest in the American colonies,except from the point of view of trade. When certain taxes and lawswere ordered by the English Parliament, the colonists opposed themand it gradually led to war. At first the colonists fared badly, butlater they rallied and eventually won final victory, under the ableleadership of George Washington.
Shortly afterthe discovery of the New World by Columbus, many Spaniards travellednorthward from Mexico and settled along the western coast of America.That is why many places in this area such as San Francisco, LosAngeles, Sacramento, and Santa Barbara have Spanish names. In 1849the chance discovery of gold brought many people to California andnumerous mining towns sprang up in a very short time. "TheGolden Gate" (the channel connecting the harbour of SanFrancisco with the Pacific Ocean) was so called because many of theseekers of the precious yellow metal passed this way to and from therich gold-fields.
In Americancities, men have built huge buildings (skyscrapers) some as many asfifty flats high. The national capital of the United States isWashington and the White House is the home of the President. Thefamous Statue of Liberty in New York harbour was a gift from France.
While Englishis the national language of the country, some immigrants havecontinued the manners, customs, and even tongue of their homeland,and newspapers, in all languages, may be seen in the book-stalls.Here are some common English words, for which the Americans havedifferent names: sweets-candies, shop-store, motor-car-automobile,pavement-sidewalk, petrol-gas, lift-elevator, dust-bin, garbage-can,holiday-vacation, trousers-pants, waistcoat-vest, a jug-pitcher.There are also differences in the spelling of certain words:colour-color, honour-honor, programme-program.
The nationalbanner of the United States of America, commonly known as "TheStarts and Stripes" or "Old Glory", is a flag bearing50 stars and 13 stripes. Each star represents a present-day state andeach stripe stands for one of the original colonies. The nationalanthem is the "Star Sprangled Banner" and the nationalemblems are the eagle and the buffalo. The national sport may be saidto be baseball.
CLIMATE ANDNATURE OF GREAT BRITAIN
CLIMATE
The climate inGreat Britain is generally mild and temperate due to the influence ofthe Gulf Stream. The south-western winds carry the warmth andmoisture into Britain. The climate in Britain is usually described ascool, temperate and humid.
British peoplesay: "Other countries have a climate, in England we haveweather."
The weather inBritain changes very quickly. One day may be fine and the next daymay be wet. The morning may be warm and the evening may be cool.Therefore it is natural for the people to use the comparison "aschangeable as the weather" of a person who often changes hismood or opinion about something. The weather is the favourite topicof conversation in Britain. When two Englishmen are introduced toeach other, if they can't think of any thing else to talk about, theytalk about weather. When two people meet in the street they willoften say something about weather as they pass, just to show theirfriendliness.
Every dailypaper publishes a weather forecast. Both the radio and televisiongive the weather forecast several times each day.
The Englishalso say that they have three variants of weather: when it rains inthe morning, when it rains in the afternoon or when in rains all daylong. Sometimes it rains so heavily that they say "It's rainingcats and dogs".
Rainfall ismore or less even throughout the year. In the mountains there isheavier rainfall then in the plains of the south and east. The driestperiod is from March to June and the wettest months are from Octoberto January. The average range of temperature (from winter to summer)is from 15 to 23 degrees above zero. During a normal summer thetemperature sometimes rises above 30 degrees in the south. Wintertemperatures below 10 degrees are rare. It seldom snows heavily inwinter, the frost is rare. January and February are usually thecoldest months, July and August the warmest. Still the wind may bringwinter cold in spring or summer days. Sometimes it brings thewhirlwinds or hurricanes. Droughts are rare.
So, we may saythat the British climate has three main features: it is mild, humidand changeable. That means that it is never too hot or too cold.Winters are extremely mild. Snow may come but it melts quickly. Inwinter the cold is humid cold, not the dry one.
This humid andmild climate is good for plants. The trees and flowers begin toblossom early in spring.
In the Britishhomes there has been no central heating up till recently. Thefireplaces are often used. but the coal is not used as it's veryexpensive. Britain has no good coal now and imports it itself. Manyschools and universities have no central heating either, and thefloors there are made of stone. The British bedroom is especiallycold, sometimes electric blankets or hotwater bottles are used.
LONDON -THE CAPITAL OF GREAT BRITAIN
When we thinkof Paris, Rome. Madrid, Lisbon and other European capitals, we thinkof them as "cities'. When we think of the whole of modernLondon, the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, thatgreat area covering several hundred square kilometres, we do notthink of it as 'a city. not even as a city and its suburbs. ModemLondon is not one city that has steadily become larger through thecenturies; it is a number of cities. towns, and villages that have,during the past centuries, grown together to make one vast urbanarea.
London issituated upon both banks of the River Thames, it is the largest cityin Britain and one of the largest in the world. Its population isabout 7 million people.
Londondominates the life of Britain. It is the chief port of the countryand the most important commercial, manufacturing and cultural centre.There is little heavy industry in London, but there is a wide rangeof light industry in Greater London.
Londonconsists of three parts: the City of London, the West End and theEast End.
The Cityextends over an area of about 2.6 square kilometres in the heart ofLondon. About half a million people work in the City but only lessthan 6000 live here. It is the financial centre of the UK with manybanks, offices and Stock Exchange. But the City is also a market forgoods of almost every kind, from all parts of the world.
The West Endcan be called the centre of Tendon. Here are the historical palacesas well as the famous parks. Hyde Park with its Speaker's Corner isalso here. Among other parks are Kensington Gardens, St.James's Park.In the West End is Buckingham Palace. Which is the Queen's residence,and the Palace of Westminster which is the seat of Parliament.
The best-knownstreets here are Whitehall with important Government offices. DowningStreet, the London residence of Prime Minister and the place wherethe Cabinet meets. Fleet Street where most newspapers have theiroffices, Harley Street where the highest paid doctors live, and someothers.
TrafalgarSquare is named so in commemoration of Nelson's great victory. In themiddle stands the famous Nelson Column with the statue of Nelson 170feet high so as to allow him a view of the sea. The column stands inthe geographical centre of the city. It is one of the best open airplatforms for public meetings and demonstrations.
One of the"musts" for the sightseer are the Houses of Parliament,facing the Thames, on one side, and Parliament Square and WestminsterAbbey, on the other. The House of Commons sits to the side of theClock Tower (Big Ben), the House of Lords - to the Victoria Towerside.
WestminsterAbbey is the crowning and burial place of British monarchs. It hasits world famed Poet's Corner with memorials to Chaucer, Shakespeare,Milton, the Bronte's sisters. Tennyson. Longfellow, Wordsworth,Burns, Dickens, Thackeray, Hardy, Kipling and other leading writers.Only a few however, are actually buried there.
Here too isthat touching symbol of a nation's grief. The Grave of the UnknownWarrior.
The name "WestEnd" came to be associated with wealth, luxury, and goods ofhigh quality. It is the area of the largest department stores,cinemas and hotels. There are about 40 theatres, several concerthalls, many museums including the British Museum, and the best artgalleries.
It is in theWest End where the University of London is centred with Bloomsbury asLondon's student quarter.
The Port ofLondon is to the east of the City. Here. today are kilometres andkilometres of docks, and the great industrial areas that depend uponshipping. This is the East End of London, unattractive in appearance,but very important to the country's commerce.
In recenttimes London has grown so large. that the Government has decided thatit must spread no farther. It is now surrounded by a "greenbelt" - a belt of agricultural and wooded land on which newbuildings may be put up only with the permission of the planningauthorities.
SOME FACTSABOUT LONDON
London hasbeen home of many famous Englishmen. Some were born there. Some livedthere all their lives. Others lived in London only for a short timebut all gave something to this great city
One of thefirst names of importance is that of Geoffrey Chaucer, the poet. Helived most of his life in London. He knew the courts of King RichardII d King Henry IV. His most famous work, 'The Canterbury Tales",opens at the Tabard Inn, in Southwark. Chaucer held official posts inLondon and is buried in Westminster Abbey.
WilliamShakespeare also lived in London. He lived there for more than twentyyears. He acted at the Globe Theatre and wrote his plays in London.But London's famous men are not only writers. Sir Christopher Wren,the architect, spent most of his life in London. He designed manybeautiful churches, including St. Paul's Cathedral. He also designedpalaces and fine houses.
Music isrepresented by a very interesting figure. This is George FrederickHandel. He came to London from Hanover in 1710. He lived for a timeat Burlington House, Piccadilly, now the Royal Academy. After somesuccess and some failure he at last became famous. This happened whenhe composed "The Messiah". "Judas Maccabeus". and'The Music for the Royal Fireworks". Like Chaucer and many othergreat artists. Handel is buried in Westminster Abbey.
Another famousLondon figure is one of England's greatest seamen. Admiral LordNelson. He has a very special memorial in Trafalgar Square. Themonument consists of a very tall column. On top of it stands a figureof Nelson. It is called the Nelson Column. Equally famous is thegeneral who led the army at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. This wasthe Duke of Wellington. His house stands at Hyde Park Comer. It issometimes known as Number One, London. Like Admiral Nelson, the Dukeof Wellington is buried in St. Paul's Cathedral.
Fromthe center of Westminster Bridge one can have a splendid view of theH. of P. The structure is a remarkable example of Gothicarchitecture. Royal Palaces and houses were built along the banks ofthe Thames in medie’val days, because the water was a busy wayinto and out of London. The H.P. called officially the Palace ofWestmister were a palace for queens and kings. The palace was usedboth as a royal residence and also as a parliament house until the16thcentury. In 1834 the H.P. were destroyed by the fire. Sir CharlesBarry was asked to plan the building and August Pugin wascommissioned to make it look gothic. The result is the Palace ofWestminster. The odd combination of these two men produced a triumph.The H.P. is the biggest Gothic palace in the world, and by far themost impressive. During the Second World War a bomb destroyed theHouse of Commons – the principal chamber in the whole complex It was decided to rebuild it exactly the same size. The H.P. containthe universal symbol of L., Big Ben. B.B. is actually the name of thebiggest bell inside the Clock Tower which forms part of the H.P.
The Palace of Westminsterhas two miles of corridors and more than 1000 rooms. When Parliamentis sitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. The House of Lordslooks more splendid with its beautiful red benches than the House ofCommons. There is the throne for the Queen and the woolsack for theLord Chancellor there. Visitors can watch the Parliament at work fromthe Strangers’ Gallery. The Speaker sits on the green chair.
WestminsterAbbey is on one side, the Houses of Parliament on the other. Thebuildings of the Houses of Parliament is not old, it dates only fromthe 19thcentury, and is in the Gothic style. When the Parliament has asitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. It is the national flagof the United Kingdom. Another tower, the Clock Tower, is famous forthe hour bell and the clock named “Big Ben”. Only a shortway from the Houses of Parliament there is one of the most beautifulof all English buildings – W.A., founded in the 11thcentury. There are many tombstones, monuments and statues there. Fornearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of England – 41 inall – have been crowned here. If u go past the magnificenttombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold and precious stonesu will come to the Poets’ Corner. There many of the greatestwriters were buried. Geoffrey Chauser, Samuel Johnson, CharlesDickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling. Burns andByron, Walter Scott and the great American poet Henry WadsworthLongfellow. Here in the Abbey there is also the Grave of the UnknownWarrior that commemorate the men who died on the First World War.
The square has a lot ofstatues including Richard the Pion-Hearted, and Oliver Cromvell. Italso has the masterpiece of Sir Henry Mur – the statue of SirWinston Churchill.
TheCity’s greatest monument and on of the finest Renaissancecathedrals in Europe is St.Paul’s Cathedral. The old cathedralwas completely destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666. Peopleput their belongings in the church, thinking it was safe, but thefire soon reached it. It was so hot it turned the church bells intomolten metal. Christopher When a famous English architect, wascommissioned to rebuild Saint Paul’s. He made several plansbefore one was accepted. In the Crypt of the church you can see scalemodels of his rejected designs. It took nearly 35 years to build theCathedral, being finished in 1710. Running around the interior of thedome is the famous Whispering Gallery. It is called so because youcan clearly hear the whisper made by someone who is standing on theopposite side of the gallery. Big Paul, the heaviest bell in thecountry, is in the northern bell tower at the front of Saint Paul’s.It rings every weekday at 1 p.m. to let people know that it islunchtime. Another bell Big Tom, tolls when a monarch or importantchurchmen die. The church bells in the other tower are rung onSundays and to celebrate great occasions
All the principlestreets of London lead to the heart of the City, the financial andbusiness center of Great Britain. The City is about one square milein area and only a few thousand people live there. But by day, manypeople swarm its streets and offices. Here there are the Bank ofEngland, The Stock Exchange and headquarters of many of the richestcompanies and corporations in the world. The City’s greatestmonument and on of the finest Renaissance cathedrals in Europe isSt.Paul’s Cathedral. The old cathedral was completely destroyedby the Great Fire of London in 1666. People put their belongings inthe church, thinking it was safe, but the fire soon reached it. Itwas so hot it turned the church bells into molten metal. ChristopherWhen a famous English architect, was commissioned to rebuild SaintPaul’s. He made several plans before one was accepted. Runningaround the interior of the dome is the famous Whispering Gallery. Itis called so because you can clearly hear the whisper made by someonewho is standing on the opposite side of the gallery.
Tower Bridge is theonly Thames bridge which can be raised. The road over the bridge isbuilt on two central sections called bascules, which open two orthree times a week to let ships through. There are displays insidethe bridge on its history. (T.S.+W.A.+H.P.)
Theposition of Great Britain gives it a temperate climate. Britain liesin the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is surrounded by thesea which makes the climate warmer in winter and cooler in summer.The Gulf Stream influences the English climate greatly. The climateis not the same in all parts of England. The western part is warmerthan the eastern one and it also has more rains. The western hillsand mountains shut out some of the mild wind from the Atlantic. OnWestern coast gales are always strong. The south-western winds arethe most frequent. They usually bring mild weather. There is muchhumidity in the air. Britain is well known as a foggy country. Theannual temperature in London is about 8 degrees C.
Scotland is a part of Britain and Wales. Scotland isbounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the NorthSea, on the southeast by England, southwest by the Irish Sea and onthe west by the Western Isles. Like the climate of the rest of GreatBritain, that of Scotland is subject to the moderating influences ofthe surrounding seas. As a result of these influences, extremeseasonal variations are rare, and temperate winters and cool summersare the outstanding climatic features. Low temperatures, however, arecommon during the winter season in the mountainous districts of theinterior. In the western coastal region, which is subject to themoderating effects of the Gulf Stream, conditions are somewhat milderthan is the east. The average temperature in January is 4 degrees Cand in July is about 15 degrees C. Scotland’s weather issimilar to Wales and England.
Walesis a part of the United Kingdom. It also includes the mall island offWales called Anglesey. Wales is bounded on the North by the IrishSea, on the east by the English counties, on the South by the BristolChannel, and the west by Saint George. Wales is almost all mountains.The tops of the mountains are covered with the snow. The climate inWales is very moist and mild like in the United Kingdom. The averagetemperature in January is about 6 degrees C and in July is about 16degrees C.
Ireland’sclimate is mainly determined by its position in the north temperatezone and the effect of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. Theclimate is relatively uniform throughout. The prevailing west windscarry rain from the Atlantic, resulting in heavier rainfall in thewestern and southern parts of the country. Summers are relativelycool, with July and August being the warmest months, whilst wintersare relatively mild with January and February being the coldestmonths. Snow falls occasionally in winter months but it is rarelyprolonged and usually only lasts for a few days.
Kensington Palace is aroyal palace in London. Originally a private country house, thebuilding was acquired by William III and Mary II in 1689 and wasadopted for royal residence by Sir Christopher Wren. Kensington Houseas it was known became William and Mary’s principal residence.For the next 70 years the palace was at the center of the life andgovernment of the kingdom and played host to the courts of Williamand Mary, Queen Anne, George I and George II.
Inthe XIX century Kensington was the birthplace and home of PrincessVictoria (later Queen Victoria). By the end of 19thcentury, the State Apartments at Kensington Palace were in a very badstate of repair having been used as stores for paintings andfurnishings from other palaces. In April 1897 a decision was made torestore the palace and Parliament agreed to fund the work on thecondition that the building should be opened up to the public. Partsof the palace remains a private residence for members of the royalfamily, the State Apartments and Royal Ceremonial Dress Collectionare open to the public.
Buckingham Palace isthe London home of the Queen and Prince Philip. The Palace is alsothe administrative headquarters of the monarchy. The Queen receivesvisiting heads of state at the palace and it is here that the Queenholds garden parties and bestowed knighthoods and other honours. FootGuards from the Household Division in their distinctive red tunicsand black bearskins, can be seen on guard duty outside the palacedaily. The Changing the Guard ceremony now takes place only everyother day in the winter but it is still daily in the summer months.After a serious fire damaged Winsdor Castle in 1993 the Queen allowedthe Palace State rooms to be opened to the public for the first time,to help pay the Winsdor Castle repair bill.
The Tower of Londondoesn’t belong to the City, though it stood there for almost900 years. It is more connected with the royal dynasties than withthe world of business. It was originally built as a fortress to guardthe river approaches to London. The Tower of London was begun byWilliam the Conqueror in 1078 as a castle and palace. Since then ithas been expanded, and used as an armoury, a zoo, a royal mint and aprison, a treasury and an observatory. A group of ravens live at theTower. The tradition goes that if they disappear the building willcollapse. For centuries a royal zoo was kept in the grounds. It onceincluded a polar bear, which fished and swam in the moat. Now it is amuseum and the Beefeaters (Yeoman Warders) guard the Tower. They usedto be the monarch’s private bodyguard. Beefeater was a medievalnickname for well-fed servants. They wear a Tudor-style uniform ofblue or red. They willingly show visitors the main places ofinterest. In some Tower rooms there are inscriptions carved on thewalls by former prisoners. In Salt Tower you can see a complicatedastronomical clock carved by a sixteenth century prisoner accused ofblack magic.
T.S.is London’s geographical center. It was laid out during theearly part of the 19thcentury to commemorate the naval victory of Britain over the Frenchat Trafalgar in 1805, in which Admiral Lord Nelson took part and wasfatally wounded. The Nelson column with the statue of Admiral Nelsonon top of it is 185 feet (5 metres) high. At the base of the columnyou can see four bronze lions which are guarding it and were castfrom the cannon of battleships. On October 21stthere is a service under the column to commemorate Nelson. The eastand west sides of the square are gracefully flanked by plane trees.Beyond the terrace above the north side stands the National Gallery;on the lawns in front of the Gallery stands a statue of James II, tothe west of the main entrance, and to the east a statue of GeorgeWashington. Among other important buildings surrounding the squareare the church of St.Martin-in-the-Fields. T.S. has long been theplace for political meetings and demonstrations, including those ofthe Chartists who began their march here in 1848. More recently ithas become the terminal point of protest marches. Every year atChristmas time an enormous Christmas tree is erected, the annualgift, since the 2ndWorld War, of the Norwegian people. On New Year’s Eve T.S.. isalways the scene of celebrations. Not far from T.S. there is a quietlittle street with very ordinary houses. So you may be surprised tosee a policeman who is standing at one of the houses. It is DowningStreet and for the last two hundred years at No.10 each PrimeMinister of England has been living there. Downing Street leads toWhitehall. There was a palace here once, where from the 12thto the 16thcentury the English Kings and Queens were living. Now it is just astreet of government offices. Here in the middle of the read there issimple but impressive Cenotaph, the Memorial to the men who died inthe two World Wars.
W.Awas founded in the 11thcentury. It is a fine Gothic building, which stands opposite theHouses of Parliament. It is the work of many hands and differentages. The oldest part of the building dates from the eights century.It was a monastery – the West Minster. In the 11thcentury Edward the Confessor founded a great Norman Abbey. One of thegreater glories of the Abbey is the Chapel of Henry VII. The Chapelis of stone and glass, so wonderfully cut and sculptured that itseems unreal. There are many tombstones, monuments and statues in theAbbey. For nearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of England –41 in all – have been crowned here. If u go past themagnificent tombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold andprecious stones u will come to the Poets’ Corner. There many ofthe greatest writers were buried. Geoffrey Chauser, Samuel Johnson,Charles Dickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling.Burns and Byron, Walter Scott and the great American poet HenryWadsworth Longfellow. Here in the Abbey there is also the Grave ofthe Unknown Warrior that commemorate the men who died on the FirstWorld War.
Moscow (1)
Moscow is thecapital of Russia. The city is located in western Russia and lies inthe broad, shallow valley of the Moskva River, a tributary of the Okaand thus of the Volga, in the centre of the vast plain of EuropeanRussia. This region is one of the most highly developed and denselypopulated areas of Russia.
The climate ofMoscow is of the continental type, modified by the temperateinfluence of westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Winters are coldand long, summers are short and mild . The moderate annualprecipitation occurs predominantly in the summer months, often inbrief, heavy downpours. Only a small percentage of Moscow'spopulation is employed in the city centre because of thedecentralization of workplaces. Industry is the dominant source ofemployment, followed by science and research. Although Moscow's rolein the country's administration is of prime importance, government asa source of employment is relatively minor. Engineering (productionof automobiles and trucks, ball bearings, machine tools, andprecision instruments) and metalworking are by far the most importantindustries. Other important activities include the manufacture oftextiles, chemicals and derivative products, and consumer goods(foodstuffs, footwear, and pianos); timber processing; construction;and printing and publishing. Moscow is the headquarters of stateinsurance and banking organizations. The pattern of rings and radialsthat marked the historical stages of Moscow's growth remains evidentin its modern layout. Successive epochs of development are traced bythe Boulevard Ring and the Garden Ring (both following the line offormer fortifications), the Moscow Little Ring Railway, and theMoscow Ring Road. From 1960 to the mid-1980s the Ring Road was theadministrative limit of the city, but several areas of the largelygreenbelt zone beyond the road have been annexed since then. Thecentre of the city and the historical heart of Moscow is thefortified enclosure of the Kremlin. Its crenellated redbrick wallsand 20 towers (19 with spires) were built at the end of the 15thcentury and were partially rebuilt in later years. Within the wallsof the Kremlin are located the meeting places of the government ofRussia. Among these are the former Senate building (1776-88), theKremlin Great Palace (1838-49), and the modern Palace of Congresses(1960-61). Other features within the Kremlin include the centralCathedral Square, around which are grouped three cathedrals, allexamples of Russian church architecture at its height in the late15th and early 16th centuries; a group of palaces of various periods;the white bell tower of Ivan III the Great; the Armoury Museum; andthe Arsenal (1702-36). Along the east wall of the Kremlin lies RedSquare, the ceremonial centre of the capital. The Lenin Mausoleumstands beneath the Kremlin walls, and the Church of the Intercession,or Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed, is at the southern end of thesquare. The State Department Store, GUM, faces the Kremlin, and theState Historical Museum (1875-83) closes off the northern end of thesquare. In the remainder of central Moscow, within the Garden Ring,are buildings representative of every period of Moscow's developmentfrom the 15th century to the present. Examples of the Moscow Baroquestyle, the Classical period, and the revivalist Old Russian style maybe found. In the Soviet period streets were widened, and much of theold part of the inner city was demolished and replaced by largeoffice and apartment buildings, government ministries, headquartersof national and international bodies and organizations, hotels andlarger shops, and principal cultural centres. Beyond the Garden Ringis a middle zone dominated by 18th- and 19th-century developments;many factories, railway stations, and freight yards are locatedthere. Since 1960 extensive urban renewal has occurred, producingneighbourhoods of high-rise apartment buildings. The outer zone hasbeen the site of modern factory development and extensive housingconstruction in the 20th century. Beyond the newer suburbs are areasof open land and forest, together with satellite industrial towns anddormitory suburbs. Moscow's inhabitants are overwhelmingly of Russiannationality, but members of more than 100 other nationalities andethnic groups also live there. Population density, though lowered byoutward expansion of the city, has remained high because of the vastnumber of large apartment buildings. Moscow has a large concentrationof educational institutions, and its centres of higher education drawstudents from throughout Russia. Moscow State University (1755) isthe leading educational institution. The city's many specializededucational institutions include the Moscow Timiryazev Academy ofAgriculture and the Moscow P.I. Tchaikovsky State Conservatory.Scientific research is conducted by the Academy of Sciences of Russiaand many institutions linked to industry. The city's librariesinclude the V.I. Lenin State Library. Theatre, music, and art areimportant in the city's life. The State Academic Bolshoi ("Great")Theatre (1825), Maly ("Little") Theatre, and Moscow ArtTheatre are especially renowned. Of the many museums and galleries,the State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the State Tretyakov Galleryare notable. Few people in Moscow own automobiles, necessitatingheavy reliance on public transportation provided by the Metropolitan(Metro) subway, buses, streetcars, and trolleybuses. The Metrosystem, which reflects the city's street patterns, is known for theelaborate architecture of its stations. Moscow is the centre of thecountry's rail network, on which freight transport is heavilydependent. Trunk rail lines radiate from the city in all directionsto major Russian population and industrial centres, to Ukraine,Belarus, and eastern Europe, and to Central Asia. Suburban commutertraffic is facilitated by the Moscow Little Ring Railway (1908) andthe Greater Moscow Ring Railway, which link radial lines. Passengertrains connect to destinations throughout Russia and Europe. Moscowis also a major river port and is served by the Moscow Canal. TheVolga's various canals link Moscow to all the seas surroundingEuropean Russia. Moscow is the centre of the country's airlinenetwork; the Sheremetyevo airport, in the north, handlesinternational flights.
Moscow (2)
One of theworld's great cities, Moscow (Russian Moskva) is the capital ofRussia. Since it was first mentioned in chronicles of 1147, Moscowhas played a vital role in Russian history; indeed the history of thecity and of the Russian nation are closely interlinked. Today Moscowis not only the political centre of Russia but also the country'sleading city in population, in industrial output, and in cultural,scientific, and educational importance. For more than 600 yearsMoscow has been the spiritual centre of the Russian Orthodox Church.
The capital ofthe Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) until itsdissolution in 1991, Moscow attracted world attention as a centre ofCommunist power; the name of the seat of the former Soviet governmentand successor Russian government, the Kremlin (Russian Kreml), becamea synonym for Soviet authority. The dissolution of the U.S.S.R.brought economic and political change, along with a degree ofuncertainty over the future, to the city. Moscow covers an area ofabout 386 square miles (1,000 square kilometres), its outer limitbeing roughly delineated by the Moscow Ring Road. Most of the areabeyond this highway has been designated as a Forest-Park Zone, orgreenbelt.
Moscow (3)
In March of1918 Moscow became the capital. The supreme organs of state power andmany central institutions moved to Moscow from Petrograd. It wasextremely difficult in the years of the Civil war to see the image ofa new city in deserted and unheated Moscow.
The rapidgrowth of Moscow's population occurred during the twenties andthirties, in 1931 work began to develop the Master ReconstructionPlan of Moscow, a plan which many people abroad considered to be vaindream.
The city grewand changed, the streets and squares became wider, the wooden housesat the former outskirts disappeared. But the buildings of culturaland historical value were carefully preserved.
Today, asever, the Kremlin with Red Square is the centre of Moscow. HereMoscow began more than eight hundred years ago. The city has grown sovast since, the present and the past are so closely interwoven thatone can not embrace it all at once.
Certainvillages, distant country estates have become the new residentialareas of Moscow. New dwellings rose not only within the establishedparts of Moscow but new neighbourhoods took shape in Tyoply Stan,Orekhovo-Borisovo, Yasenevo.
In the pastcentury Moscow went through the invasion of Napoleon's army thatforced all Muscovites to leave their city. Moscow was burned down butwas never conquered. Once the enemy was driven away. its inhabitantsset about building Moscow anew.
Nowadays inerecting new buildings, the Muscovites take care to preserve itsunique monuments. Its architectural ensembles have been formed overthe centuries and each generation added features of its Lime to theappearance of the city.
The city hasthousands of libraries, schools, kindergartens and nurseries,hundreds of clubs and cinemas, dozens of higher educationalestablishments, theatres, museums and stadiums.
Neither wordsnor convincing figures, however, can give a complete idea of what hadbeen done in Moscow. One has to visit Moscow plants and factories, tostroll about its streets and squares, to see its new residentialareas.
The Kremlin isnow both a piece of living history and an ensemble of masterpieces ofRussian architecture.
The firstthing that meets the eye is the redbrick walls of the Kremlin,reinforced by 20 towers, five of which are also gates. The Kremlin'stowers are unique in appearance. Built in 1485, the Tainitsky Toweris the oldest. The highest of them is the Trinity Tower which is 80metres tall.
The BolshoiTheatre was opened in 1825. The theatre seats 2,150. The company hasmore than 900 members.
TheState Tretyakov Gallery. The gallery's works of Russian fine artsrange from unique mosaics and icons of the 11th century to works ofcontemporary artists. The gallery is named after great RussianConnoisseur Pavel Tretyakov who left his collection as a gift to thenation. It has become one of the most popular places of interest inMoscow since then.
The Kremlin
The Kremlin is the symbol of first Russian and laterSoviet power and authority. Its crenellated red brick walls and 20towers were built at the end of the 15th century, when a host ofItalian builders arrived in Moscow at the invitation of Ivan III theGreat. Of the most important towers, the Saviour (Spasskaya) Towerleading to Red Square was built in 1491 by Pietro Solario, whodesigned most of the main towers; its belfry was added in 1624-25.The chimes of its clock are broadcast by radio as a time signal tothe whole nation. Also on the Red Square front is the St. Nicholas(Nikolskaya) Tower, built originally in 1491 and rebuilt in 1806. Thetwo other principal gate towers--the Trinity (Troitskaya) Tower, witha bridge and outer barbican (the Kutafya Tower), and the BorovitskayaTower--lie on the western wall.
Within the Kremlin walls is one of the moststriking and beautiful architectural ensembles in the world: acombination of churches and palaces, which are open to the public andare among the city's most popular tourist attractions, and thehighest offices of the state, which are surrounded by strictsecurity. Around the central Cathedral Square (Sobornaya Ploshchad)are grouped three magnificent cathedrals, superb examples of Russianchurch architecture at its height in the late 15th and early 16thcenturies. These and the other churches in the Kremlin ceasedfunctioning as places of worship after the Revolution and are nowmuseums. The white stone Cathedral of the Assumption (Uspensky Sobor)is the oldest, built in 1475-79 in the Italianate-Byzantine style.Its pure, simple, and beautifully proportioned lines and elegantarches are crowned by five golden domes. The Orthodox metropolitansand patriarchs of the 14th to the 18th century are buried there.Across the square is the Cathedral of the Annunciation(Blagoveshchensky Sobor), built in 1484-89 by craftsmen from Pskov;though burned in 1547, it was rebuilt in 1562-64. Its cluster ofchapels is topped by golden roofs and domes. Inside are a number ofearly 15th-century icons attributed to Theophanes the Greek and toAndrey Rublyov, considered by many to be the greatest of all Russianicon painters. The third cathedral, the Archangel (Arkhangelsky), wasrebuilt in 1505-08; in it are buried the princes of Moscow and tsarsof Russia (except Boris Godunov) up to the founding of St.Petersburg. Just off the square stands the splendid, soaring whitebell tower of Ivan the Great; built in the 16th century and damagedin 1812, it was restored a few years later. At its foot is theenormous Tsar Bell (Tsar-Kolokol), cast in 1733-35 but never rung.Nearby is the Tsar Cannon (Tsar-Pushka), cast in 1586. Beside the gunare located the mid-17th-century Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles(Sobor Dvenadtsati Apostolov) and the adjoining Patriarchal Palace.On the west of Cathedral Square is a group of palaces of variousperiods; the Palace of Facets (Granovitaya Palata)--so called fromthe exterior finish of faceted, white stone squares--was built in1487-91. Behind it is the Terem Palace of 1635-36, which incorporatesseveral older churches, including the Resurrection of Lazarus(Voskreseniye Lazarya), dating from 1393. Both became part of theKremlin Great Palace, built as a royal residence in 1838-49 andformerly used for sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R.; itslong, yellow-washed facade dominates the riverfront. It is connectedto the Armoury Palace (Oruzheynaya Palata), built in 1844-51 and nowthe Armoury Museum, housing a large collection of treasures of thetsars. Along the northeast wall of the Kremlin are the Arsenal(1702-36), the former Senate building (1776-88), and the School forRed Commanders (1932-34). The only other Soviet-period buildingwithin the Kremlin is the Palace of Congresses (1960-61), with a vastauditorium used for political gatherings and as a theatre.
The BritishPress
The Britishpress consists of several kinds of newspapers.
The nationalpapers are the ones sold all over the country, with a largecirculation, giving general news.
There are twomain types of national paper - the "popular" papers and the"quality" papers. The popular papers are smaller in size(they are tabloid size), with lots of pictures, big headlines andshort articles. They are easy to read and often contain little realinformation. They give much space to opinions. They usually have"human interest" stories - stories about ordinary peopleand events. Examples of this type of newspapers are "The DailyMail". "The Sun", etc.
"Quality"papers appeal to the more serious reader, who wants to read aboutpolitics and foreign affairs. These papers such as "The DailyTelegraph", "The Guardian" are bigger in size (theyare called "broad-sheets"), with longer articles and awider coverage of events. They have different pages for home news,foreign affairs, features articles, fashion, business, sport and soon.
People inBritain buy more papers on Sunday than on weekdays. The Sunday papershave a higher circulation than the dailies. As with the dailies,there are both popular and quality Sunday newspapers. The qualityones have different sections and a colour magazine (usually full ofadvertisements)
Television
Television isthe most popular leisure pastime in Russia. Several televisionchannels are in operation: "Ostankino". "RussianChannel", "Independent TV Channel - NTV". Besides themthere are local TV channels and local commercial TV channels in bigcities and republics of Russia.
TV servicesprovide programmes of general interest such as light entertainment,sport, current affairs, serious drama, music. There are programmes onarts, children's and family programmes, interview with outstandingpersonalities, news reports covering international, national andlocal events.
Much attentionis paid to foreign films, American in particular, foreign TVprogrammes and soap operas.
Television isone of the most popular mass media in Britain. Some 96 per cent ofpopulation have television in their homes. It is estimated that about10 per cent of household have two or more sets. Average viewing timeper person is over 17 hours a week.
Fourtelevision channels are in operation: BBC-1. BBC-2. ITV. Channel-4.
The BBC hasbeen providing regular television broadcasts since 1936. BBCtelevision productions come from main studios at the TelevisionCentre in west London and other studios in various parts of London.
The firstregular independent television broadcast began in London in 1955.Independent television programmes are produced at 18 studio centresthroughout the country.
THE OLYMPICGAMES
The OlympicGames are one of the most spectacular reminders of the debt we owe tothe Greeks.
The originalOlympic Games were held every four years in honour of Zeus, thesupreme god of Greek religion. The first record of the games datesfrom 776 B.C., but it is certain that they existed prior to that.They were held continuously for over 1.000 years until they wereabolished in the reign of King Theodosius about 392 A.D. The Olympicfestival was a great unifying bond between the Independentcity-states of Greece.
The importantsports in the original Olympic Games were running, jumping,wrestling, throwing the discus and throwing the javelin. Only mencompeted and they wore no clothes in order to have greater freedom ofmovement. Each competitor had to take the Olympic Oath - a promise tobehave in a sportsman-like fashion.
The modernOlympic era began in 1894 when Frenchman Baron Pierre de Coubertindecided to revive the ancient Greek tradition of celebrating health,youth and peace with a sports festival. Baron de Coubertin createdthe International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the first modemOlympiad took place in Athens in 1896. Since then the Olympic Gameshave been held every four years with only two exceptions because ofthe two world wars.
Even thoughthe modern Olympic Games embrace the whole world, the connection withGreece is still very strong. A lighted torch is brought all the wayfrom Greece, carried by a relay of runners, in order to light theOlympic Flame which bums all through the Games. As in ancient Greektimes, the competitors still take the Olympic Oath. The long-distancerace is still called the Marathon. Marathon was a village about 26miles from Athens. In the year 490 BC the Greeks defeated a powerfulPersian army at that spot. After the fierce day's fighting a soldiervolunteered to bring news of the victory to the anxious citizens ofAthens. He ran all the way and after gasping out the message."Rejoice, we conquer!" he collapsed and died.
One importantrule of the Olympic Games is that the competitors must be amateurs.This rule has been under a lot of pressure in recent years becausemodem sport is so professional and competitive. Athletes train foryears to take part in the Olympics and some countries spend much morethan others on equipment and facilities. But despite these pressures,the amateur rule remains.
In moderntimes the Olympic movement has become an enormous and expensiveorganisation, It's controlled by the International Olympic Committee,which consists of members from all the participating countries. TheIOC is based in Lausanne, Switzerland. It chooses the locations ofboth summer and winter games (both take place once very four years,with winter games half a year before summer Olympiads). It alsocontrols the rules of the competitions and selects new Olympicsports. The famous flag of the IOC shows five rings of differentcolours linked together. The rings represent the five continents.
NATIONALSPORTS OF GREAT BRITAIN
Many kinds ofsport originated from England. The English have a proverb, "Allwork and no play makes Jack a dull boy". They do not think thatplay is more important than work; they think that Jack will do hiswork better if he plays as well. so he is encouraged to do both.Association football, or soccer is one of the most popular games inthe British Isles played from late August until the beginning of May.In summer the English national sport is cricket. When the Englishsay: "that's not cricket" it means "that's not fair","to play the game" means "to be fair".
Golf isScotland's chief contribution to British sport. It is worth notinghere an interesting feature of sporting life in Britain, namely, itsfrequently close connections with social class of the players orspectators except where a game may be said to be a "national"sport. This is the case with cricket in England which is played andwatched by all classes. This is true of golf, which is everywhere inthe British Isles a middle-class activity. Rugby Union. the amateurvariety of Rugby football, is the Welsh national sport played by allsections of society whereas, elsewhere, it too is a game for themiddle classes. Association football is a working-class sport as areboxing, wrestling, snooker, darts, and dog-racing. As far as fishingis concerned it is a sport where what is caught determines the classof a fisherman.
Walking andswimming are the two most popular sporting activities, being almostequally undertaken by men and women. Snooker (billiards), pool anddarts are the next most popular sports among men. Aerobics (keep-fitexercises) and yoga. squash and cycling are among the sports whereparticipation has been increasing in recent years.
There areseveral places in Britain associated with a particular kind of sport.One of them is Wimbledon where the All-England Lawn TennisChampionship are held in July (since 1877). The other one is Wembly -a stadium in north London where international football matches, theCup Finals and other events have taken place since 1923.
TABLETENNIS
Table tenniswas first Invented in England in about 1880. At first the game hadseveral strange names: Gossima. Whiff Whaff and Ping Pong. It wasn'tuntil 1926 that the International Table Tennis Association was formedwith international championships and rules.
Although thegame was invented in England British players don't have much chancein international championships. It's the Chinese with their fantasticspeed and power who win almost every title. Table tennis looks morelike gymnastics when the Chinese start playing, with the ball flyingover the net at speeds of over 150 kilometres per hour.
RACING
There are allkinds of racing in England - horse-racing, motor-car racing,boat-racing, dog-racing, and even races for donkeys. On sports daysat school boys and girls run races, and even train for them. There isusually a mile race for older boys, and one who wins it is certainlya good runner.
Usually thosewho run a race go as fast as possible, but there are some races inwhich everybody has to go very carefully in order to avoid falling.
The mostfamous boat-race in England is between Oxford and Cambridge. It isrowed over a course on the River Thames, and thousands of people goto watch it. The eight rowers in each boat have great struggle, andat the end there is usually only a short distance between the winnersand the losers.
The Universityboat-race started in 1820 and has been rowed on the Thames almostevery spring since 1836.
SQUASH
Squash beganat Harrow School in the mid-nineteenth century, but has since workedits way Into almost every city and district in Britain and throughoutEurope.
Squash is oneof the fastest games in the world. Two people play in a smallconfined space surrounded by high walls with no net to keep themapart. The aim is to get to the point at the centre of the court andto stay there.
Squash playershope that the game will make them stronger and fitter, but. like manysports, squash can be very dangerous. The most obvious danger is thesmall ball that shoots through the air extremely fast.
WINDSURFING
Windsurfingwas invented in the mid-sixties by two southern Californian surfers,Hoyle Schweitzer and Jim Drake. Surfers need strong rolling waves,and hate days of calm sea. Schweitzer noticed that on days when waveswere not high enough to surf, there was often a strong wind and heset about finding a way to use it.
His firstexperiments Involved standing on his surfboard holding out a piece ofsail cloth in his hands. Gradually he and Drake refined this ideainto a basic design for a sailboard, similar to a surfboard, butholding a mast and a triangular sail which could be tilted and turnedin any direction. The windsurfer operates a boom which controls theamount of wind in the sail, for speed and change of direction.Schweitzer immediately went into business designing and making thenew sailboards and taking the idea abroad. By mid-seventies, thesport had spread to Holland, Germany and France.
OLYMPICGAMES IN LONDON
London washost for the first time in 1908. With 1,500 competitors from 19nations, the Games were by now an institution of world-widesignificance. The programme, moreover, was augmented by the inclusionof Association football (which appeared in 1900 but only in ademonstration match), diving, field hockey, and ice hockey, as wellas other sports since discontinued.
The mostdramatic episode of these Games was in the marathon, run from Windsorto Shepherd's Bush in London, the site of a new stadium. Pietri(Italy) led into the arena but collapsed and was disqualified foraccepting assistance from officials. The gold medal went to thesecond man home, Hayes (USA), but Queen Alexandra, who was presentopposite the finishing line, was so moved by the Italian's plightthat she awarded him special gold cup. The 400 metres provided anopportunity for Halswelle (GB) to become the only man in Olympichistory to win by a walk-over. The final was declared void after anAmerican had been disqualified for boring. Two other Americanswithdrew from re-run final in protest, leaving Halswelle an unopposedpassage. Britain won the polo, and all the boxing, lawn tennis,rackets, rowing, and yachting titles as well as five out of six cycleraces.
CHRISTMAS
The word"Christmas" is derived from the words "Christ's Mass"- the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. But althoughChristmas is undoubtedly a Christian celebration, it is also true tosay that it is an unusual combination of pagan and Christianfestivities.
A Christmastree stands in everybody's living room at Christmas, shining its goodcheer around the room. Sitting on the very top of the tree is asilver star surrounded by tiny lights. All the branches are hung withsilver bells, tinsel and sparkling lights. Around the base of thetree lie the gifts and toys wrapped up in bright colourful paper.
The Christmastree has spread its influence around the world. In fact Americaadopted it before it found its way to England early in QueenVictoria's reign. Now every Christmas British people are sent a hugefir tree from Norway which stands in Trafalgar Square, in the centreof London, shining down on all the people who gather on ChristmasEve.
Inpre-Christian times evergreens, trees that remain green throughoutthe year. were worshiped in Northern Europe as symbols of eternallife. Mistletoe, hung up as a Christmas decoration is a symbol oflove and reconciliation.
Holly, awell-known Christmas decoration today, has Christian associations. InNorwegian, Swedish and Danish, holly is known as "Christ'sthorns", the legend being that Christ wore a crown of hollythorns before his death. Some people have seen associations betweenthe word "holly" and "holy".
Givingpresents goes back to Roman Saturnalia when good luck gifts of fruit,pastry or gold were given to friends on New Year's Day. In Britainthe traditional day to give presents until relatively recently wasDecember 26th and not as it is today, Christmas Day. December 26th isnow known as Boxing Day, for it was then that the priests of theMiddle Ages opened alms boxes to give to the poor.
Not allChristian customs and traditions are of ancient origin. Althoughvarious people have claimed to have designed the first Christmascard. William Egley, an English artist, seems to have the best claim.In 1842 he designed his own card and sent it to one hundred of hisfriends. Today three billion are sent annually in the United Statesalone.
HAPPY NEWYEAR
Atmidnight on 31st December bells will ring out around the world towelcome the New Year. Although certain countries and religionscalculate time by other calendars most countries in the world nownumber their years according to the Gregorian calendar introduced inthe 16th century by Pope Gregory XIII. This calendar was intended toovercome the confusion caused by calculating time according to themoon's phases.
Bell ringingis one way of celebrating the arrival of a new year which is commonto all countries welcoming it at this time; but it is the differencesin their celebrations and customs which are intriguing.
In Europetraditions vary considerably, but most of them involve a meal orspecial food. Swiss housewives bake special bread, rich in butter,eggs and raisins. They also cook roast goose. Children go from houseto house greeting the occupants and receiving invitations to comeinside. People in Italy hold all-night parties, where salt porklentils are included on the menu. Lentils are supposed to be luckyand bring money - perhaps because they look like small piles of goldcoins. There is a practical reason for meals featuring in these newyear festivities. Most people stay up all night, or at least untilmidnight to "see the New Year in", so sustenance isessential. Also there is common superstition that if the new yearbegins well it will continue like that.
So greatefforts are made to provide an atmosphere of goodwill and plenty.Parties are arranged a drink flow freely. In Spain it is a custom toeat , ^ grapes at midnight and toast the new year in champagne. atfamily gatherings. Groups of friends visit restaurants in Turkeyintending to spend the night in celebrations which include presentgiving. So a people in Greece play cards, hoping that a win willbring them luck for a whole year.
NEW YEAR'SDAY IN ENGLAND
Thecelebration of New Year's day varies according to the district. Inthe south of England, the festival of Christmas, lasting 12 days fromDecember 25th, runs on well into the New Year. The decorations ofcoloured streamers and holly, put up round the walls, and of coursethe fir-tree, with its candles or lights, are not packed away untilJanuary 5th.On the evening of December 31st, people gather in one another'shomes, in clubs, in pubs, in restaurants, and hotels, in dance hallsand institutes, to "see the New Year in". There is usuallya supper of some kind, and a cabaret, or light entertainment. Thebells chime at midnight. The people join crossed hands, and sing"Auld lang syne", a song of remembrance.
On New Year'sday all English schoolchildren make New Year resolutions. They makeup lists of shortcomings which they intend to correct. The chil'dren. their mothers and fathers, and their friends laugh and have agood time when they read them The children promise to keep them.
In the north,and in Scotland, particularly, the Year known as Hogmanay, is verywell kept up. The ceremonies are similar, but they have an addedcalled "first foot". This means opening your door to anyonewho knocks it after midnight, and who will then enter the house,carrying a piece of coal or wood, or bread. The visitor isentertained with cakes and ale.
At the Jollyparties on New Year's eve and also on Burn's night, when theycommemorate their national poet (Jan. 25th), the Scottish peopleenjoy eating their famous Haggis. This is a pudding, made from theheart, liver and lungs of sheep or calf, minced suet, onions, oatmealand seasoning, and cooked in the animal's stomach. It is brought intothe banqueting-hall or dining room to the accompaniment of thebagpipes. Considerable quantities of good Scotch whiskey are consumedduring these celebrations.