HISTORY Evidence of a meeting in eastern Texas between Middle Ameri- can prehistoric cultures and temple MOUND BUILDERS from the eastern part of what is now the United States has been discovered in an In- dian mound on the Neches River, and many tribal groups-- incl uding the APACHE, CADDO, and Comanche--inhabited what is now Texas.
Conquest and Colonization Early European explorers in the area were the Spaniards Alon- so Alvarez de Pineda (1519), Alvar Nunez CABEZA DE VACA (1528), and Francisco CORONADO (1541). Other Spanish expeditions followed du- ring the next century, and in 1682, Ysleta, near El Paso, beca me the first European settlement in Texas. Three years later Robert Cavelier, sieur de LA SALLE, brought the second flag (French) to Texas. He landed at the head of Lavaca Bay and established Fort Sa- int Louis. La Salle was killed by one of his own men in 1687, and his fort was destroyed by disease and the Indians. About 1714, however, the Spanish felt threatened by another Frenchman, the explorer and trader Louis Juchereau de Saint Denis. Although he claimed t hat his intention was simply to establish trade, he was arrested and sent to Mexico City. The Spanish then redoubled their efforts to settle Texas, and by the middle of the 18th century they had moun- ted more than 100 expeditions to the area. The cowboy of the American West, a dashing figure in popular novels and films, was in reality a poorly paid laborer engaged in difficult and usually monotonous work. During the years after the Civil War the range cattle industry developed first in Texas and, beginning in the 1870s, in the Southwest and on the northern Great Plains. Although some of the young men who worked on these ranches were from the northeastern states, probably a majority came from the South, and many had fought in the Civil War. Not all cowboys were whites; about a third were African-Americans or Mexican-Ameri- cans. For their techniques and equipment, cowboys drew on both the Spanish traditions of northern Mexico and southern Texas and those of the Gulf coastal states. The work year centered on two events, the roundup and the long drive. Roundups were held in the spring and often also in the fall. After cowboys had herded cattle to a central location, they branded newborn calves, castrated and dehorned older animals, and, in the spring, chose the cattle to be taken to market. From 1865 to 1880 at least 3.5 million cattle were driven in herds of between 1,500 and 3,000 from southern Texas to cattle towns on rail lines in Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming. The route most frequently used was the CHISHOLM TRAIL, which went to Abilene, Kans. Working up to 20 hours a day, cowboys drove the animals from one watering place to the next, guarding against predators, straying cattle, and stam- pedes at night. For his hard and dirty work the typical cowboy ear- ned between $25 and $40 a month. By about 1890 the cattle ranges had been fenced in and the extension of the railroads had eliminated the need for long cattle drives. Thus the era of the old-fashioned cowboy came to an end. At this point, although far removed from the drab truth, dime novels and works such as The Virginian (1902) of Owen WISTER began presen- ting to a nostalgic public the stalwart, romantic cowboy hero.
American Interest in Texas The sale (1803) of Louisiana to the United States increased interest in Texas from the east. Augustus Magee, a U.S. army offi- cer in Louisiana, befriended the Mexican patriot Bernardo Gutier- rez, who had been fighting for his country's independence from Sp ain. They led an expedition into Texas and captured Nacogdoches, Goliad, and San Antonio before Magee died mysteriously in Goliad. In 1819, Dr. James Long of Natchez, Miss., led another expe- dition to Texas, hoping to make the region an independent state. He captured Nacogdoches, but his forces were soon defeated. A year la- ter, Moses Austin visited San Antonio and sought permission t o settle Americans in Texas. Upon returning to Missouri, his dying request was that his son, Stephen AUSTIN, carry out his plans, which the Spanish had approved. In 1821 the white population of Texas was 7,000, with Goliad, San Antonio, and Nacogdoches the only towns of any size. During this period Mexico secured its independence from Spain, and, in 1823, Stephen Austin went to Mexico City to seek confirmation of his father's grant. A new law required that agents introduce at le- ast 200 families of colonists, so Austin made an agreement with the Mexican governor to settle 300 American families. Colonization was so successful, however, that by 1836 the population of Texas was 50,000.
Revolution and Republic Differences in language, culture, and religion soon led to difficulties between the new Anglo-American settlers and the Mexi- can government. Because of the great distance between Texas and Me- xico City, cultural and commercial ties grew stronger with the U nited States, and some settlers hoped that U.S. boundaries would be extended to include Texas. In 1830 the Mexican congress enacted a law to limit immigra- tion to Texas. But this only increased dissatisfaction, for neither the Mexican national constitution nor the constitution of 1827 for the state of Coahuila-Texas granted rights that AngloAmerica ns considered inalienable, such as trial by jury and the right of ba- il. Most settlers also found unacceptable the requirement that they become Roman Catholics because most of them were Protestants. War broke out between the American settlers and the Mexican government in 1835, and the Texans won the first battle at Gonzales on Oct. 2, 1835. The same year the Texans captured San Antonio af- ter a devastating siege; a provisional government was set up on Mar. 2, 1836, and Sam HOUSTON was named commander in chief of the Texas armies, Stephen Austin having gone to Washington to solicit aid. In February and March 1836 one of the most heroic battles in history occurred at the Alamo. The besieged Texas forces commanded by William B. TRAVIS had been reduced to 157. He appealed for help, and about 30 additional men from Gonzales broke through th e lines of the Mexican general, Antonio SANTA ANNA. The 187 defenders, com- manded by Travis, James BOWIE, and Davy CROCKETT, then held the Alamo for another five days before it fell. March also saw a mas- sacre at Goliad, in which the outnumbered Texans, ha ving surrende- red after a battle on Coleto Creek, returned to Goliad only to be killed on the orders of Santa Anna. Despite reverses, the Texans declared their independence in a great spirit of resistance, and on Mar. 2, 1836, David Burnet was named provisional president. Thinking the war was over, Santa Anna moved eastward with his army. Sam Houston's troops-- half t he num- ber of the Mexicans--occupied a position at the junction of the San Jacinto River and Buffalo Bayou, opposite Santa Anna's camp. On the afternoon of April 21 the Texans attacked while Santa Anna was ha- ving his siesta. Their battle cry was "Remember the Alamo; Remember Goliad." Santa Anna fled but was taken the next day and held priso- ner for six months. (See TEXAS REVOLUTION.)
Statehood and the Mexican War The Texas republic, whose independence had been recognized by the United States, Great Britain, France, Holland, and Belgium, was soon struggling with Indian wars, raids by Mexican forces, and fi- nancial problems. In September 1836, Texans voted for annex ation by the United States; approval by the U.S. Congress was delayed un- til 1845, however, because of the northern states' opposition to the extension of slavery. On Dec. 29, 1845, the U.S. Congress ac- cepted the Texas state constitution, and Texas became the 28th state, with legal slavery. The MEXICAN WAR between the United States and Mexico followed within a few months of Texas' entry into the union. The U.S. victo- ry in that war established the Rio Grande as the border between Me- xico and the United States. Texas, however, claimed all the terri- tory from the mouth of the Rio Grande to its source in southern Co- lorado, a claim vigorously opposed by those who wished to exclude slavery from the territories newly acquired from Mexico. In 1850, as part of the COMPROMISE OF 1850 , Texas relinquis hed its claim to half of what today is New Mexico and portions of Colorado, Wyo- ming, Oklahoma, and Kansas in exchange for $10 million. Texas withdrew from the Union on Feb. 1, 1861. Little figh- ting took place on Texas soil during the Civil War, the most impor- tant engagements being the capture and recapture of Galveston, the principal port. A battle took place at Palmito Ranch near Brown sville, after General Lee had already surrendered at Appomattox. Military rule following the Civil War was short-lived, but the state was inundated with CARPETBAGGERS. On Mar. 30, 1870, Texas was readmitted to the Union after ratifying the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Following the Civil W ar cattle ranching became increasingly important to the economy, and vast herds were driven to the railroad in Kansas over the CHISHOLM TRAIL.
Modern Era When the 20th century began, about 3 million people lived in Texas, and agriculture dominated the economy. Then in 1901, Spind- letop, the state's first great oil gusher, was discovered. Soon oil was found in virtually every part of the state, and the grea t east Texas oil field, discovered in 1930, helped lessen the impact of the Depression. Racial segregation was a continuing issue throughout most of the 1950s and '60s, but by 1966, Texas ranked first among southern states in integrating its schools. The poll tax was abolished by court action in 1966. Another court decision led to redistric ting the Texas legislature to conform to the Supreme Court policy of one person, one vote. Politically prominent Texans in the 1960s, '70s, '80s, and '90s included two U.S. presidents, Lyndon B. JOHNSON and George BUSH, Congresswoman Barbara JORDAN, Governor Ann RICHARDS, and U.S. Treasury Secretary Lloyd BENTSEN, a former Texas senator and a vi- ce-presidential candidate in 1988. In 1987 the Texas legislature approved a landmark $5.7 billion tax increase. In 1993, Waco, Tex., received worldwide attention as a standoff near there between fede- ral authorities and members of the Branch Davidian re ligious cult resulted in violent confrontation and many casualties.
На протяжении 1,244 км ( 773 мили ) с востока к западу и 1,289 км ( 801 mi ) с севера к югу, Штат Техас, Штат Одинокой Звезды, зани- мает почти 7.5 процентов от общей американской области земли - область такого размера, как вся Новая Англия, Нью-Йорк, Штат Пенсильвания, Штат Огайо вместе взятые объединенный. Штат Техас в 1994 вырос чтобы стать вторым щтатом США по количеству населения , перемещаясь перед Нью-Йорком и после Калифорнии. Техас берет свое название от испанских и индийских слов tejas и techas,которые озночают "друг" или "союзник". Штат Техас наглядно показывает влияние и индусов и испанских, французских, и других европейских открывателей и миссионеров. В 1820, Moses и Stephen F. Austin начали англо-американскую солонизацию, кото- рая завершилась в итоге в организации временного правительства в Сан Фелипе 3 ноября, 1835, и в итоге независимости от Мексики 2 марта, 1836 года. Проведя почти десять лет как независимая республика, Штат Техас стал американским штатом 29 декабря, 1845. Современная экономическая разработка Штата Техас началась в ян- варе 1901 с извержением нефтяной скважины которую бурят в Spindletop, около Beaumont. Быстрое открытие нефти в других частях штата приведет к буму, который никогда не остановится. Экономика Техаса стала высоко разнообразной, и население больше чем учетверилось в течение 20-ого столетия.
ЗЕМЛЯ И РЕСУРСЫ География и Почвы Четыре главных географических подразделения Севера Америка най- дены в Штате Техас: Залив Прибрежная Равнина на востоке и юго-востоке, СевероЦентральные Равнины идут с севера к югу в центре штата, Большие Высокие Равнины на северо-западе, и Пекосские Горы с крайнего запада на юго-западу. Рельеф Штата Техас повышается постепенно с востока к западу, достигает самого высокой точки в Пике Guadalupe ( 2,667 m/8,749 футы ) в горной системе Пекос. Залив Прибрежная Равнина, простирающийся приблизительно на 80-100 км( 50-60 миль ) внутри от Мексиканского Залива, его высота от морского уровня до высоты приблизительно 150 м. ( 500 футов ), повер- нут по отношению к холмам. Западная часть состоит из плодородной зем- ли, из земли нерегулярной влажности, известной как Черноземная Прерия. Находящийся внутри от Прибрежной Равнины, Севера Центральных Равнин, Штата Техас - лежит на южном продлении Больших Равнин, и они достигают юга поперек всего штата у реки Rio-Grande. Южная часть рав- нин известна как Edwards Плато. Они граничат с Северой Центральной Равниной на западе - Равнина Staked, или Llano Estacado на испанском. Она состоит из перевала с возвышенностью приблизительно 1,200 м. ( 4,000 фута ). Расположенная между Мексикой и Новой Мексикой, бесплод- ная область Пекосских гор на юго-западном Штата Техас чередуется с холмистой местностью в долине Реки Pecos и изолированна от высоких массивов Guadalupe и Davis гор. Штат Техас разделен на 14 областей различной земли, которые име- ют подобные или связанные почвы, растительность, рельеф, и климат. Почвы изменяются по глубине от одной области до другой и показывают различные физические свойства; все они хорошо поливаются дождями, од- нако, нуждаются в ирригации чтобы делать их производительными.
Реки и Озера Штат Техас имеет два источника воды: водоемы, найденный под больше чем половиной штата, и потоков с их резервуаров. Вода от вышеу- помянутого источника традиционно была необходимым источником муници- пальных ресурсов; из-за падения столы воды города больше должны теперь зависеть от поверхности reservoirs. 3,700 реки штата имеют объединенную длину приблизительно 130,000 км ( 80,000 mi ). Среди главных рек - Rio GRANDE, который опускается приблизительно на 3,650 м. ( 12,000 футов ) от источника до устья и составляет границу с Мексикой; Red River, которая отделяет Штат Техас от Штата Оклахома и Арканзаса; Colorado River Штата Техас ( 965 km/600 mi ) - самая длинная река в пределах штата; и Sabine, который формиру- ет южную половину границы между Штатом Техас и Штатом Луизиана. Другие реки включают PECOS и Demon River, оба притока Rio Grande: Nueces и Guadalupe. Штат Техас имеет несколько естественных озер, и несколько сотен искусственных. Они были разработаны чтобы обеспечить снабжение элект- ричеством, хранить воду, иполивать фермы. Среди самых больших - Озеро Texoma ( частично в Штате Оклахома ) на Красной Реке, Falcon и Amistad резервуары на Rio Grande, Sam Rayburn резервуар на Реке Angelina на востоке Штата Техас, Озеро Texarkana на Реке Sulphur, Toledo резервуар на Sabine, Озеро Travis на реке Колорадо, и Озере Livingston на Реке Trinity.