Women now make up over two-fifths of the workforce in Britain, and about 800,000 run their own businesses. They are increasingly represented in the professions. The proportion of public appointments held by women has risen to 30 per cent, and the number of women Members of Parliament has increased to over 60.
Women take up around all further and higher education places, and the provision of 'access' courses has helped those returning to education.
ETHNIC MINORITIES
For centuries people from overseas have settled in Britain, either to escape political or religious persecution or in search of better economic opportunities. The Irish have long formed a large section of the population. Jewish refugees who came to Britain towards the end of the 19th century and in the 1930s were followed by other European refugees after 1945. Substantial immigration from the former colonies in the Caribbean and the South Asian sub-continent dates principally from the 1950s and 1960s. There are also sizeable groups from the United States and
Canada, as well as Australians, Chinese, Greek and Turkish Cypriots, Italians and Spaniards.
Since 1962 Britain has necessarily imposed controls limiting the number of immigrants to levels the country can absorb, both economically and socially. Immigration Rules set out the requirements to be met by people (excluding British citizens) who seek entry to or leave to remain in Britain. Nationals of European Union member states are not subject to substantive immigration control, and may work in Britain without restriction.
In the 1991 census just over 3 million people (5.5 per cent) described themselves as belonging to an ethnic group other than the 'white' group. Nearly half of the ethnic minority population were born in Britain. A higher proportion is under 16 than for the white group, but a much lower proportion is over pensionable age.
Many members of the black and Asian communities are concentrated in the inner cities, with related problems of deprivation, However, much progress has been made over the last 20 years in tackling racial disadvantage in Britain through equal opportunities policies backed up by anti-discrimination legislation, and through the social, economic and educational initiatives of central and local government.
Many individuals from the ethnic minority communities have achieved distinction in their careers and in public life, and the proportion occupying professional and managerial positions is increasing. There are at present six ethnic minority Members of Parliament, and the number of ethnic minority councillors in local government is growing. There has also been an expansion of commercial enterprise, and numerous self-help projects in ethnic minority communities have been established. Black competitors have represented Britain in a range of sporting activities (such as athletics and football), and ethnic minority talents in the arts and in entertainment have increasingly been recognised.
The British people enjoy a long-established democratic way of life, sustained by free elections, freedom of speech and open and equal treatment before the law. These rights are balanced by responsibilities, since a democratic society can only function when the people participate actively in its institutions.
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
The basic principle of British democracy is that the people elect Members of Parliament (MPs) to the House of Commons to which the Government is accountable. The system provides effective channels for British citizens to influence their government as well as checks and balances to prevent any government from exceeding its powers. MPs have a duty to deal with problems and queries raised by their constituents, local organisations and pressure groups.
The most direct opportunity for the individual to influence the national political scene is during general elections (and by-elections) to the House of Commons, the centre of parliamentary power. Citizens aged IS and over, with a few exceptions, have the right to vote by secret ballot, 'although voting is not compulsory. Britain is divided into 651 constituencies, each represented by one MP. The average number of voters in a constituency ranges between 55,000 and 70,000.
Any British citizen, with few exceptions, can stand for election if aged 21 or over. Elections to the House of Commons have to be held at least once every five years. If an MP resigns or dies during the life of a Parliament a by-election is held.
In the 1992 general election 76.6 per cent of a total electorate of 43.3 million people exercised their right to vote. Support for the Conservatives is strongest in the southern half of England and East Anglia, while the Labour Party is more successful in Wales, Scotland and in urban industrialised areas. Support for the third largest party, the Liberal Democrats, is particularly strong in the south west of England. Unionist (Protestant) panics hold the majority of the parliamentary seats in Northern Ireland, and a handful of seats are held by two nationalist parties in Scotland and Wales. Support among British people for extremist political views is relatively small. British voters also elect 87 representatives to the European Parliament, which monitors the operation of the European Union. Direct elections take place in all Union member states every five years.
LOCAL DEMOCRACY
As well as taking part in parliamentary elections, people in Britain elect their representatives to local councils which provide services such as education, public housing, personal social services, police and fire brigades. Many candidates at local government elections stand as representatives of the main political parties, although there are some independent candidates, and some represent local interests. Candidates must live or work in the area of the local authority to which they seek election. Councillors serve part-time and are unpaid, except for certain expenses.
PRESSURE CROUPS
In addition to participation in parliamentary and local elections, people in Britain have other ways of expressing their views and trying to influence the way their lives are governed. Millions of people support pressure groups, which are informal organisations representing a vast array of interests and causes, and which are free to express their opinions and conduct campaigns without government interference. Pressure groups aim to influence those who are in authority in the way decisions are made-and carried out.
There is a huge range of pressure groups, covering areas such as politics, business, employment, consumer affairs, ethnic minorities, aid to developing countries, foreign relations, education, culture, defence, religion, sport, transport, health, social welfare, animal welfare and the environment. Some have over a million members; others only a few dozen. Some exert pressure on a number of different issues; others are only concerned with a single issue. Some have come to play a role in the way Britain is governed; others seek influence through radical protest.
THE VOLUNTARY SECTOR
In Britain there is a long tradition of voluntary service to the community. There are hundreds of thousands of voluntary organisations, ranging from national bodies to small local groups. Their activities range from helping to relieve poverty throughout the world to running a local village hall. Self-help groups have been the fastest expanding area of the voluntary sector over the last 20 years.
Voluntary organisations may be staffed by professional workers, but many rely on the efforts of volunteers at some level. It has been estimated that up to half of all British adults take part in some form of organised voluntary activity during the course of a year. Many volunteers are involved in work which improves the quality of life in their local communities or, more widely, give their time to help organise events and groups in areas as diverse as social welfare, education, sport and the arts. A very large number are also involved in activities to protect or improve the environment (see p. 34).
Some people not only give up their leisure time for others but also put their own lives at risk. Around 10,000 volunteers are members of either the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, the Mountain Rescue Committee of Great Britain or the British Cave Rescue Council.
THE LAW
Every citizen in Britain has the right to open and equal treatment before the law (although England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland all have their own legal systems). Law in Britain is formulated and enforced on behalf of the people and there is a long tradition of the general public participating in that process. Alongside the police and professional judiciary, ordinary citizens may contribute to the fair and efficient administration of justice as magistrates, jurors and witnesses.
Members of the public who are not formally trained in law may become lay magistrates or Justices of the Peace.
Magistrates' torn Is (district courts in Scotland) air local courts, silling without a jury, which deal with summary offences - less serious offences and the vast majority of criminal cases. Unpaid lay magistrates are usually recommended for the job by committees of local people.
The more serious criminal cases are tried in the higher courts before a judge and a jury of 12 people (15 in Scotland). It is the jury's role in a trial to determine the guilt or innocence of a defendant. People between the ages of 18 and 70 (65 in Scotland) whose names appear on the electoral register, with certain exceptions, are liable for jury service and their names are chosen at random. Jury service typically lasts between five and ten working days and citizens are only excused for valid reasons. Some people may also be required to attend a court hearing as a witness either for the prosecution or the defence.
THE POLICE
The police are responsible for enforcing the law in Britain. The 52 forces are responsible to the local communities they serve. Forces are accountable to committees of elected local councillors, lay justices and nominees, who in turn have a duty to listen to the views of people in their area about policing objectives and plans.
There are about 150,000 full-time police officers in Britain, of whom around 12 per cent are women. They are backed up by special constables - volunteer officers who are attached to each force and perform auxiliary police duties, without pay, in their spare time.
THE ARMED FORCES.
The men and women who comprise Britain's regular armed forces are paid professionals who enlist voluntarily. There is no conscription, hi April 1995 their strength was over 233,000. The forces are under the command of the elected government and have no independent political role. As is the case with the police, members of the armed forces are subject to the law in the same way as any civilian.
Hi addition to their military role, the armed services help the civil authorities when required, for example in search and rescue missions at sea or during emergencies brought about by bad weather.
The regular forces are supplemented by trained reserve and auxiliary forces. Some of these become reservists following a period of regular service; others are volunteers who train in their spare time.
Britain has a higher proportion of the adult population in work - 70 per cent -than any other large European country. The labour market has changed considerably in recent years, with a growing proportion of people working in service industries (such as financial services, education, medical services, retailing, catering, transport and communication). Nearly three-quarters of employees now work in the service sector, compared with around one-fifth in manufacturing. Other major changes have been the rising proportion of women in the workforce and the increase in part-time employment.
PATTERNS OF EMPLOYMENT
In mid-1995 the workforce in employment in Britain totalled 25.7 million. Of these, 21.9 million (11 million men and over 10.8 million women) were classed as employees in employment, and about 3.3 million were self-employed. The remainder were either in the armed forces or on work-related government training programmes. Recent trends show a continuing fall in full-time employment, but part-time employment has increased over the last decade by 1.3 million to 6.1 million - about 2 per cent of those in employment. About 44 per cent of women in employment work part-time, compared with 8 per cent of men.
The number of employees engaged in service industries in Great Britain in mid-1995 was 15.4 million, about 2 million more than in 1985. There has been a gradual move away from manual to non-manual occupations, which now account for nearly three-fifths of jobs.
PEOPLE AT WORK
The varied skills of working people throughout Britain are reflected in a vast range of professional, vocational, technical and other pursuits.
TRANSPORT
There has been a considerable increase in passenger travel in recent years -29 per cent between 1984 and 1994. Travel by car and van rose by 38 per cent, and air travel was up by about two-thirds. In all, car and van travel accounts for 87 per cent of passenger mileage within Great Britain. Car ownership has also risen substantially, hi all, 68 per cent of households in Great Britain had the regular use of one or more cars in 1994; 23 per cent had the use of two or more cars.
Traffic management schemes are used in many urban areas to reduce congestion, create a better environment and improve road safety. Although Great Britain has one of the highest densities of road traffic in the world, it has a good record on safety, with the lowest road accident death rate in the European Union.
The rail passenger network in Britain comprises a fast inter-city network linking the main centres of Great Britain; local stopping services; and commuter services in and around the large conurbations, especially London and south-east England. Rail services have been further improved by the new Channel Tunnel, linking Britain's 16,500-km (10,252-mile) rail network to that of the European mainland.
London Underground operates services on 392 km (245 miles) of railway, of which about 170 km (106 miles) are underground. The system has 245 stations, and a further extension is under construction. About 764 million passenger journeys were made on London
Underground trains in 1994-95. The Docklands Light Railway, a 22-km (14-mile) route with 27 stations, connects the City of London with areas in east London. Urban light rail lines also operate in Glasgow, Tyne and Wear, Greater Manchester and Sheffield; similar mass transit schemes are planned in other big cities.
In 1994 there were 37 million international passenger trips by sea between Britain and the rest of the world. Almost all the passengers who arrived at or departed from British ports travelled to or from the continent of Europe or the Irish Republic. In the same year about 236,000 people embarked on pleasure cruises from British ports.
Air travel has risen substantially in recent years. In 1994 some 96 million passengers travelled by air (international terminal passengers) to or from Britain, a 10 per cent increase on 1993. British airlines carried 43,9 million passengers on scheduled services and 27.1 million on charter flights.
LIVING STANDARDS
Marked improvements in the standard of living for people in Britain have taken place during the 20th century. According to a United Nations report published in 1994, Britain ranked tenth out of 173 countries on a human development index that combines life expectancy, education levels and basic purchasing power.
Earnings from employment remain the main source of household income for most people, although other sources such as private pensions and annuities have become more important Disposable income - the amount of money people have available to spend after income tax, National Insurance and contributions to pension schemes have been deducted - is now at its highest-ever level. Since the 1970s there has been little change in the distribution of marketable wealth, nearly half of which is owned by the richest 10 per cent of people. A large proportion of personal wealth in Britain - 30 per cent in 1993 - is in residential property. The Government's privatisation programme has contributed to the growth of share ownership, hi 1993 about 10 million people - 22 per cent of the adult population of Great Britain -owned shares, compared with 7 per cent in 1979.
Average weekly household spending in Britain in 1994-95 was about ?284. Food and housing costs constituted 18 and 16 per cent of this. Transport and leisure pursuits accounted for about 15 and 16 per cent.
HOUSING
Largely depending on their means, people 111 Britain live in a diverse range of accommodation ranging from country mansions to single rooms or hostels in the inner cities. The majority, however, live in houses and (to a lesser extent) flats, either as owner-occupiers or as tenants paving rent. About 19 per cent of houses are detached, 31 per cent are semi-detached and 29 per cent are terraced. Purpose-built flats or maisonettes make up 15 per cent of the housing stock and converted flats or rooms account for 5 per cent.
Owner-occupation, which is central to government housing policy in Britain, increased substantially - from 49 per cent to 67 per cent - between 1971 and 1994. The number of owner-occupied homes amounted to 15.8 million at the end of 1993, compared with 4.1 million in 1950. Most people buy their homes with a mortgage loan, with the property as security. Building societies are the largest source of such loans, although banks and other financial institutions also take a significant share of the mortgage market. There arc some 5 million houses and in the public housing sector. Most of the public housing in Great Britain is provided by local housing authorities. Thirty-seven per cent of local authority tenants live in purpose-built flats or maisonettes, 33 per cent in terraced houses and 25 per cent in semi-detached houses. Most have the right to buy the homes they occupy if they wish.