Words that are much used often have an English plural: memorandums, formulas, indexes, terminuses.
In all countries thebroadest strataof the population have been mobilized in support of this great cause – the preservation of peace.
Then the pied wind-flowers and the tulip tall, and narcissi,the fairest among them all…[22]… the rest of the house had grown, emerging here and there into small oasesof modernity. [21] Shelgrim wrote a few memorandaon his calendar pad, and signed a couple of letters before turning to Presley. [14]
Traditionally, the plural is formed by the inflexion – (e) s, the singular form of the nouns is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion. According this there are several ways of the pronunciation of the inflexion – (e) s at the end of the word, also there are several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns are survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural. In many instances where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural. Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed.
1.4 Nouns Used in Both Numbers Singular and Plural
It is quite evident that only those nouns have both numbers (singular and plural) which denote things that can be counted, that is, things possessing a certain shape or having precise limits. Such nouns may be called countable or thing-nouns. To the group of nouns which have both numbers belong:
a) Concrete nouns: a girl – two girls; a book – two books; a flower – two flowers.
He took the loafback to the scullery. [15] Brown, crisp loavesstood on the hearth. [15] Flowers fell on her face, and she shut her eyes… One flower had remained tangled in her hair. [15]
b) Abstract nouns: a day – two days; an event – two events; a task – twotasks.
Captain Cuttle liked this idea very much. [10] A new generation is growing up in our midst, a generation actuated by new ideasand new principles. [11] It was a momentary thought…[10] Andrew went back to Christine that evening with his thoughtsin a maze. [23] I tried to shout but my voicewas not very loud. [13] Voicesand footstepswere heard in the passage… [19]
Nouns which have both numbers (countable) may be used with the indefinite article (in the singular) and associated with the pronouns some (in the singular or plural), many and few (in the plural):
A ringat the bell, repeated several times, roused him at last to go to the door. [21] What a nightto wander out in! [21] Towards the evening of the following day…a letterarrived addressed to herself. [19] A, few early fallen oak-leaves strewed the terrace… [21] He had manyinvitations to dinner some of which he accepted. [7] Passing through a sort of porch made by two yew trees and someflowering-current bushes,the girl disappeared into the house. [21]
1.5 Pluralia Tantum and Singularia Tantum
The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The constant categorial feature «quantitative structure» is directly connected with the variable feature «number», since uncountable nouns are treated grammatically as either singular or plural. Namely, the singular uncountable nouns are modified by the non-discrete quantifiers much or little, and they take the finite verb in the singular, while the plural uncountable nouns take the finite verb in the plural.
The two subclasses of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, as singularia tantum (only singular) and pluralia tantum (only plural). [27] The nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed «pluralia tantum» (which is the Latin for «plural only»), and those which have only a singular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum» (the Latin for «singular only'') [26] In terms of oppositions we may say that in the formation of the two subclasses of uncountable nouns the number opposition is «constantly» (lexically) reduced either to the weak member (singularia tantum) or to the strong member (pluralia tantum).
Since the grammatical form of the uncountable nouns of the singularia tantum subclass is not excluded from the category of number, it stands to reason to speak of it as the «absolute» singular, as different from the «correlative» or «common» singular of the countable nouns. The absolute singular excludes the use of the modifying numeral one, as well as the indefinite article. [27]
The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed «pluralia tantum», and those which have only a singular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum».
1.6 Nouns Used Only in the Singular or Singularia Tantum
Nouns denoting things which have neither shape nor precise limits cannot be counted and therefore have no distinction between singular and plural; they are used only in the singular. Such nouns may be called uncountable or mass-nouns. To the group of nouns used only in the singular belong:
a) Concrete nouns:
1. Names of materials: water, milk, wine, snow, bread, air.
Onmy breakfast table there is a pot of honey.[21]… there was the cool sound of milkdropping into pails… [21] We didn't take beeror wine.[11] Seizing inkand writing-paper,she began to write… [21]
2. Some collective nouns: foliage, leafage, shrubbery, brushwood, linen (белье), machinery, furniture:
Birds fluttered softly in the wet shrubbery…[21] He had chosen the furniturehimself. [21]… he took a narrow ride up through a dark bit of mixed timberwith heavy undergrowth.(Galsworthy.)
b) Abstract nouns: friendship, joy patriotism, love, kindness, weather, courage, information, progress, etc.: There was agreat deal of confusionand laughter and noise… [11] It was beautiful weather. (Lawrence.) At parting, my aunt gave me some good advice…[10] A sudden tide of joywent leaping out of his heart. [11]
Nouns used only in the singular (uncountable) have no article where a noun which expresses both numbers (countable) would be associated with the indefinite article; they may be used with the pronouns what, some, much or little:
Perfect harvest weather;butoppressively still… [21] Everyone gave him advice…[11] Of course-this was good news.[7] «What delightful weather we are having!» [20] What beauty, what stillness![21] He had anticipated much pleasurein this afternoon's reading… [9] «But have some tea.I've just made it.» [21]
Some collective nouns used only in the plural also belong to the group of uncountable such as: goods, sweepings, tidings, etc.
1.7 Nouns Used Only in the Plural
1. A number of nouns are used only in the form of the plural. With these nouns the plural does not indicate several objects but denotes a composite whole.
2. To the group of nouns which are used only in the plural form belong:
a) The names of things which consist of two similar halves such as scissors, trousers, spectacles, scales (весы), eye-glasses, tongs (щипцы):
These scissors are sharp. Your spectacles are on the table. Your opera-glasses are very good.
b) Nouns which have collective meaning (concrete or abstract):
1. Concrete: stairs, goods, eaves, slums, outskirts, tropics, memoirs, victuals [vitlz] (провизия), supplies, clothes, sweepings, slops (помои), preserves (консервы), parings (кожура), sweets, lodgings (sometimes) lodging; but always board and lodging), etc.:
The car went smoothly and swiftly through the outer suburbs…[4] Beads of water still dripped from the eaves… [24] At last they reached the outskirtsof the forest… [15] «Got any lodgings – «No.» [10] «Come, hand in eatables.»[10] My clothes were my Sunday best. [2] «I say, can you let a lodging?»[7]
2. Abstract: holidays, tidings, goings-on (поступки), begin nings (also beginning), earnings, wages (often in the singular, especially in the following combinations: a living wage, a fixed wage, a minimum wage), contents, etc.:
She tried to adjust herself to her new surroundings.[4] These are indeed happy tidings.We get good wages. They spent their holidaysin the mountains. Bad beginningsmake good endings(первыйблинкомом). «Well,» said Wardle, «here are pretty goings-on…» [10] He told me of some of his doings.[5]
3. In some nouns the final – s loses the meaning of the plural inflexion and the noun is treated as a singular. This is the case with the names of sciences and occupations in – ics: mathematics, phonetics, optics, which are usually considered as singular:
Phoneticsis the science of sounds. Mathematicsis his strong point. Opticsis a branch of physics;it treats of light.
These nouns are treated as plurals when practical application is meant:
His phonetics areexcellent. The acousticsof this hall aregood.
Politics, tactics, gymnastics, athletics are generally regarded as plurals.
«The only politicsI understand,» answered Magnus sternly, «are honest politics.»[6]
4. With some nouns the usage wavers, and the noun is treated either as a singular or as a plural:
The gas-worksis (are)situated on the river. Price's workswas small. [5] To-day we are going to visit a great smelting-works…[6]
It should be noted that with regard to nouns used only in the plural the English and the Russian usage sometimes differ. Thus the noun opera-glasses is used in English only in the plural, whereas in Russian бинокль has both numbers. The noun сани is used in Russian only in the plural; in English sledge has both numbers. Other nouns are used in one language only in the plural, in the other – only in the singular. Thus in Russian the noun сумерки is used only in the plural, whereas in English the noun twilight is used only in the singular.
1.8 Nouns Used in the Plural in a Special Sense
In some cases the plural form of the noun does not express were pluralities (as in tables = table + table…) but acquires a special meaning. Very often the plural form, besides this specific meaning, may also retain the exact meaning of the singular thus resulting in two homonymous words:
colour = tint, colours = 1) plural of tint, 2) flag:
«I do not mean regimental colours,but the watercolours.»[17]
custom = habit, customs = 1) plural of habit, 2) duties:
Many old customsare dying out. Customs(пошлины) are duties imposed by law on goods imported and exported.
pain = suffering, pains = I) plural of suffering, 2) effort:
She enlivened our journey by describing to us… the various pains she had in her back. [11] «I have examined Adele… and find you have taken great painswith her… [2]
quarter = fourth part, quarters = 1) plural of fourth part, 2) lodgings:
I have read three quartersof the book. We found him ire his old quarters.
work = toil, labour; works in various senses: the works of a watch (механизмчасов), works of art, etc.
1.9 Double Plural Forms
Some nouns have double plurals used with some difference of meaning:
f 1) brothers (sons of one mother) brother – y 2) brethren (members of one community)
J 1) geniuses (men of genius) genius ^ 2) genii (spirits)
f 1) pennies (number of coins) penny – y 2) pence (amount of pennies in value)
(1) staffs (military staffs [штаб], staffs [штат] of an staff institution)
I 2) staves (sticks)
II) cloths (kinds of cloth) cloth – clothes (articles of dress)
J I) indexes (tables of contents) index – indices (in mathematics)
2. The Development or Loss of Plural Forms in Connection with a Change or Variation of Meaning of the Noun
1. A number of nouns in English which are used only in the singular (uncountable) may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular and plural (and thus become countable). This is found in the following instances:
a) Material nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable) express numbers, singular and plural (countable), when they denote different sorts:
«This is avery rare and most delicious wine.[10] There are many different wineson this list. The teas (tobaccos)of this plantation are of a very good quality. We produce high quality steels.
Note.– When a material noun serves to denote an object made of that material, it becomes a class-noun and may be used in both numbers:
Give me a glass (two glasses) of water. I have bought a new iron(two-new irons). A copper, two coppers(меднаямонета, медяк).
b) The noun hair is used in the singular (волосы); a hair is used only with the meaning of a few separate hairs (волосок, волоски):
…this girl's hairwas chestnut, almost auburn. [6] She has a few grey hairs.She has more hairthan wit, and more faults than hairs. (Shakespeare.)
c) The noun fruit is used in the singular. The plural form fruitsdenotes different kinds of fruit:
The fruitis not yet ripe. We have much fruit this year.
But: The fruitswere local, consisting of apples, pears, nuts, and such other products of the summer… [9]
The plural form fruit is also used when the meaning is figurative:
Fruitsof the workers' toil are buried in the strong coffers of a few. (The International.) The rich fruits of the heroic labour of Soviet people are visible from all corners of the earth, and they are an inspiration to the citizens of other countries advancing along the path of Socialism.
d) Abstract nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable), taken in a general sense, acquire both numbers (and thus become countable) when they express concrete instances or special aspects of the notion which they denote:
It has been such a joyto see you and Holly. [21]… he sympathized with their joys and grieves;[5]
…now I remembered that the real world was wide, and that a varied field of hopes and fears,of sensationsand excitements,awaited those who had courage to go forth into its expense to seek real knowledge of life amidst its perils.[2]… May.night had fallen soft and warm, enwrapping with its grape bloom colour and its scents the billion caprices, intrigues, passions, longings, and regretsof men and women. [21] Little Sharp, with her secret griefs,was the heroine of the day. [1] When sorrows come, they come, not single spies, but in battalions. [1]
Note. – When such nouns as beauty, youth, etc. do not denote abstract qualities but people characterized by those qualities, they become class-nouns and are used in both numbers (like countable nouns): a beauty (красавица), a youth (юноша);
This girl is a real beauty. The youths were marching with red banners-Some abstract nouns are used in English only in the singular (uncountable), whereas in Russian the corresponding nouns are used in both numbers (countable): information, news, business, advice, work (работа), progress (успех), and others: «What sort of workdid you do?"[4] «You always give me good advice…»[10] «This newshas shaken me, Eliot.» [20] She is making splendid progress in English.
To indicate concrete instances of advice, information, etc., the words piece or item are used: