· to mark a clause giving extra information which is not essential for the meaning of the main clause (non-defining relative clause): The Tate Modern, which is the newest museum in London, has excellent facilities for children.
· after certain linking words (e. g. however, therefore, for example, to sum up etc.)
· when if-clause begins the sentence, no comma is used when the if-clause follow the main one.
Apostrophes (’) are used with possessives, e. g. The professor’s secretary, and to show contractions, e. g. It’s generally believed …However, they are not common in academic English. Semi-colons (;) show the link between two connected phrases when a comma would be too weak and a full stop too strong. They are quite rare in most types of writing. Colons (:) introduce explanations, e. g. The meeting was postponed: the Dean was ill, and start a list, e. g. Two factors were discussed: cultural and social.
Question mark is used to end a direct question; however, we use a full stop to end an indirect question (e. g. He asked me what I was doing.) Exclamation mark is used in exclamatory sentence. Italics are used to show the titles of books, plays, films: Romeo and Juliet as well as for names of hotels, restaurants. Hyphens (-) are used with certain compound words: well-educated/co-operative/four-year-old. Dots (…) are used to show omissions. Brackets () are used to contain information of lesser importance: There were only 40 marriages (out of 14.900) in which ‘baker’ was listed. Single quotation marks are used to emphasize a word, to give quotations from other writers and to show direct speech: The word ‘quiz’ was first used in the nineteenth century. ‘Can anyone find the answer? ’ asked the lecturer. Double quotation marks are used to show quotations inside quotations (nested quotations): As Murphy has observed: ‘Concepts of “typical” need careful examination’. They are also used for the names of articles and chapters, but for book and journal titles use italics. Full stops and commas are placed inside quotation marks. You should also focus on the grammar concepts for the essay to have sense.
Another issue to consider is the language you use. Inappropriate language leads to misunderstanding or communication breakdown. The common error is the use of translation from the mother tongue. By translating word for word the student uses the wrong sentence patterns and the wrong vocabulary. Another cause of writing errors is the choice of long and complicated sentences with far too many supplementary clauses. The longer the sentence the bigger is the chance of making mistakes and failing to communicate the meaning. Therefore, in the early stages of your writing choose short and simple sentences to build up a basic essay-writing style. You can play with more complex words and grammatical structures later, when you have acquired some basic techniques. Do not use words specifically to show off your vocabulary. In most cases when an essay is given to write, there is a word limit stated, i. e. an indication how many words you should not exceed in your composition. Having a limit is a way to ensure that you select the most relevant words to express your thoughts. Moreover, keeping to the word limits is a part of good practice and a sign that you possess certain skills. The best way to stay within the limits is to plan your essay. William Strunk states that "Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts." [p.29] Similarly in an essay, all sentences and paragraphs must have an essential function and purpose. Knowing that all synonyms have a subtle nuance of meaning making it distinct from the other words will help you avoid random substitutions of words that merely seem to look better. It is important to choose the right word to convey meaning. For instance, Devlin's essay predicates that a society consists of a group of people brought together by a common set of morals and assurances is not the best choice of words. Whereas the sentence Devlin's essay asserts that a society consists of a group of people brought together by a common set of morals and beliefs displays your proper knowledge of vocabulary.
On the other hand, according to Truman Capote, "The greatest pleasure of writing is not what it is about, but the music the words make." [p.14] Nevertheless, your lexis must be rich and relevant to the topic to express everything you mean from different perspectives. Editing the language can be tedious, but it is essential to polish it to the point that it is pleasing to read and has literary style. The style must display a variety of sentence types, well-chosen connectors and appropriate vocabulary. To establish emphasis learners can employ subordination and coordination. This allows you to emphasize different parts of the sentence, so that the more important phrase is clear. Coordination involves combining clauses where neither clause is more emphasized than the other. On the other hand, subordination involves designating one clause to be more important than the other. It is up to you to decide what type to choose. It is essential to mention the role of linking words in this case.
Put down your thoughts in clear sentences that flow logically from one to another. To be coherent a paragraph must satisfy two criteria: relevance (every idea must relate to the topic) and effective order (ideas must be arranged in a way that clarifies their logic or their importance and help the reader to follow and understand the writer’s thoughts). An appropriate use of paragraphs is an essential part of writing well-structured essays: In addition to problems of obesity, America's youth also suffer from increasing amounts of psychological stress. The transition is made from obesity to psychological stress providing a bridge between paragraphs. Transitions are useful when moving from paragraph to paragraph, from one point to another to form logical flow. Every essay you write should have this feeling of continuity. Connectors will occur throughout your essay. The most common ones are those that are used for listing, addition, consequences and emphasis.
| Chronology | Comparison | Contrast | Addition | Examples | Causes/Effects | |
| beforeafternextsincefirstsecondwhilewhenas soon as | likewisesimilarlycompare to/withas…asnot only…but alsothe same asjust likealsotoo | howeveron the other handon the contrarywhereasbut/yetdespite/in spite ofin contrastalthough/even thoughinsteadneverthelessnonethelessin theory…in practice | andalsoin additiontooas well asfurthermoremoreoverapart frombesidesin factanother…is | for examplefor instancein generalin particularnamelyespeciallysuch aslikeincluding | thereforesothusas a resultsincebecausefordue to/owing toasconsequentlyhencefor this reason | |
| Sequence | Opinion | Advantage/Disadvantage | Conclusion | |||
| first/to start with/to begin withfirst of allsecondly/after this (that) /next/thenthird/thirdlyfinally/lastly/last but not leastmoreover/furthermoreone…another…the former…the latter | in my opinionin my viewto my mind(personally) I believeI feel strongly thatit seems to me thatI think that | the first (dis) advantageone (dis) advantageanother (dis) advantagethe main (dis) advantagethe greatest advantage of | finallylastlyall things consideredin conlusionto sum upto crown it allall in alltaking everything into accounton the whole | |||
Cause and effect: because, as and since introduce a cause; so, therefore, consequently and as a result introduce an effect. Because, as and since are usually used in the middle or at the beginning: I stayed at home, because it was raining. Because it was raining, I stayed at home. Therefore, consequently and as a result are used at the beginning; it is not possible with so. It was raining; therefore, I stayed at home. It was raining. Consequently, I stayed at home. Due to/owing to and because of introduce a cause in the form of a noun phrase: Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%.
The most common way of giving examples is by using for example or for instance. Namely refers to something by name, i. e. There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time. Such as cannot begin a clause. It is followed by a noun or gerund.
Ideas are often linked by and. In a list, you put a comma between each item, but not before and: We discussed training, education and the budget. Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis: We also spoke about marketing. Do not usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition or In addition to this. You can use also with not only to give emphasis: We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition. As well as can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. Too goes either at the end of the sentence or after the subject and means as well: They were concerned too/They, too, were concerned. Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making.
Sequencing ideas: the former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points: Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the final term. Firstly, secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas.
Contrasting ideas: but is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence He works hard, but he doesn't earn much. He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much. The use of the linking words ‘However’ at the beginning of the second paragraph and ‘Nevertheless’ at the start of the third paragraph provides essential signposts for the reader to follow the argument that is being made. Despite and in spite of must be followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that: Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees. In theory… in practice… show an unexpected result: In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but in practice, they often don't have enough time.
Do not overuse these connectors. It is very boring to read one of these at the beginning of each sentence. Make yourself familiar with the most useful ones and be careful to use them accurately or your logic will appear faulty. With the help of linking words a continuity or flow is established for the essay that reassures the reader that you know where you are going without guessing how one paragraph relates to the other.
The difficulties in understanding and following the writer’s thoughts which are not connected in a cohesive piece of writing may be caused by plagiarizing. While it is always good to use quotes to show that you have read widely, you should make sure that the essay is written in your own words, otherwise you may be accused of cheating. Students are aware of the many Internet sites offering essays. What they may not realize is that teachers are aware of them. Tutors are usually very familiar with the difference between the way students write and the way experienced authors write, and soon notice when a student lurches between an ‘expert’ and a ‘beginner’ style. The advice is simple: write your own essay. Do not even waste your time reading other people’s essays looking for ideas. It is one thing to read to understand the process, and another to take these ideas and words as your own. This approach will not get you good marks. Indeed, when tutors reveal this they will tend to assume you understand very little and you will get lower mark. Worse, you do not develop your own writing style. If you persist in parroting other people's words rather than expressing your own thoughts, then you are likely to remain a beginner for a long time. And you will not learn much about the ideas in the course either. It is difficult to elaborate various ideas, to present the topic from different perspectives. That is the reason why some students are tempted to ‘lift’ sections of words from textbooks and articles and put them in their essays without using quotation marks or acknowledging the source. When you are quoting draw upon a wide variety of sources to ensure that you have examined the issue from multiple perspectives. There are three main ways to integrate quotations into your essay: (1) direct quotation, (2) paraphrase, and (3) mixed quotation. Direct quotation involves quoting word for word one or more sentences from an author or source. When you quote, be sure to introduce your quotation with a signal phrase. It is another issue to consider. Signal phrase is a clause before the quotation that identifies the author (e. g., "Jones says," or "According to Jones. "). It is essential to create a bridge between your own voice and that of another you are incorporating into your essay. Avoid putting the article title in the signal phrase. It is better to include paper itself or the author. Suppose you are using a quotation that appears inside an article written by someone other than the one saying the quotation. In other words, if you are using, say, Judge Davidson's quotation that appears within Oliver Gardner's article, you cite it by writing "qtd. in" following the quote: According to Judge Davidson, "just law is the foundation of a just society" (qtd. in Gardner). Paraphrase, instead of quoting the author word for word, involves putting the original phrasing into your own words. Be careful to substantially reword the original, however. If you leave just several words in a row unchanged, it will be considered plagiarism. Mixed quotations are a mix between direct quotation and paraphrase. Mixed quotations involve paraphrasing half of the original but mixing in a few direct selections from the author. When you insert them, be sure to blend in the quotation with the grammar of your own sentence. The sentence as a whole must flow smoothly. To achieve this you may need to omit or add words from or to the original. To omit words, insert an ellipsis. in place of the words you take out. Ellipses always indicate omission. To add words, put them inside brackets [] to indicate the insertion. Notice that there are spaces between the ellipses’ dots and that the brackets are square, not rounded like parentheses. For instance, Cummings asserted that the poet's imagination and his "preoccupation with the Verb" results in an ability to surpass normal standards of logic and create "an irresistible truth [in which] 2 x 2 = 5". Notice that the words "in which" inside brackets are insertions. You needed to add them so that the sentence would flow grammatically. Nevertheless, support your quotations with commentary, interpretation, or analysis. Avoid just dropping in the quotation and then immediately moving on, assuming the reader fully understands the meaning, purpose, and application of the quotation just presented.
You should practise expressing your perceptions and observations in your own words. They may not come out very well to begin with but like a learner in any field you have to be prepared to make mistakes sometimes and allow others to help you learn. When you are writing an essay you are often working with ideas and terms you are not familiar with. This makes it difficult for you to produce a clear, coherent argument. Learners have come to dislike writing or fear it and usually they avoid it or steal other people’s thoughts. Though good writing takes hard work and skill, it is possible for anyone to produce a lot of writing with pleasure and to figure out what he or she really means without plagiarizing. Do not be afraid to express your own opinions and feelings. You are a vital part of the subject. No matter what the topic is, you are really writing about how youunderstand it andfeel about it. Good writing has personality. This doesn't mean you have to flatter your readers or avoid saying something they may disagree with. It is your job to guide them, to make their task as easy as the subject allows. Armed with the belief in ability to express their thoughts and knowledge of some basic writing rules, learners will feel confident and their writing will begin to mature. The final task when writing an essay is to reflect upon the feedback received from the tutor or other students. This may be invaluable in helping to improve learner’s essay writing skills for future work.
On the whole, writing is a challenging activity that “demands conscious intellectual effort, which usually has to be sustained over a considerable period of time because cognitive skills are involved” [20, p.38]. Everything should be taken into consideration: writing techniques and stages, organization and structure, linking phrases and punctuation, word choice and its implementation. It will help the reader to decode the message and the essay will be written in a persuasive, powerful and cohesive way.