He will be ten tomorrow.
This accounts for the fact that, unlike qualitative and quantitative adverbs, circumstantial adverbs are not necessarily placed near the verb, they may occupy different places in the sentence:
It wasn’t any too warm yesterday [41].
Yesterday they had a snow-squall out west [41].
Circumstantial adverbs may be considered as the movable words [25, 284]. The most mobile are adverbs of time and place. They can occupy several positions without any change in their meaning, as in:
Usually he signs well.
He usually signs well.
He signs well usually. [25, 284]
When H. Sweet speaks of adverbs, as showing almost the last remains of normal free order in Modern English, it concerns, mostly, circumstantial adverbs [35].
Table 2: Characteristic features of quantitative adverbs
| 1. Lexico-grammatical meaning | Show the degree, measure, quantity of an action, quality, state |
| 2. Typical stem-building affixes | Are often formed from adjectives by adding -ly |
| 3. Morphological categories | ----------------------------------------- |
| 4. Typical patterns of combinability | Modify verbs, adjectives, statives, adverbs, indefinite pronouns, numerals, modals, and even nouns |
| 5. Syntactic functions | Adverbial modifier of degree |
Here is a list of adverbs of degree [16, 293]:
Absolutely
Somewhat
Adequately
Soundly
Almost
Strongly
Altogether
Sufficiently
Amazingly
Supremely
Awfully
Surprisingly
Badly
Terribly
Extraordinarily
Extremely
Fairly
Fantastically
Fully
Greatly
Half
Partly
Perfectly
Poorly
Positive
Powerfully
Practically
Petty
Completely
Totally
Considerably
Tremendously
Dearly
Truly
Deeply
Unbelievably
Drastically
Utterly
Dreadfully
Very
Enormously
Virtually
Entirely
Well
Exceedingly
Wonderfully
Excessively
Extensively
Hard
Hugely
Immensely
Credibly
Intensely
Just
Largely
Moderately
Nearly
Noticeably
Outright
Profoundly
Purely
Quite
Radically
Rather
Really
Reason
Remarkably
Significantly
Simply
Slightly
Circumstantial adverbs include [16, 294]:
1) adverbs of time: now, then, yesterday, lately, soon, afterwards, presently, immediately, eventually, when, etc.
2) adverbs of frequency: often, seldom, sometimes, always, hardly ever, never, constantly, occasionally, etc.
3) adverbs of place or direction: here, there, everywhere, downstairs, below, ashore, abroad, inside, outside, northward(s), to and fro, backwards, where, etc.
4) adverbs of consequence and cause: therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, why, so, etc.
5) adverbs of purpose: purposely, intentionally, deliberately.
Barring some adverbs with the –ward(s) suffix (backwards, inwards), the –ice suffix (twice, thrice), circumstantial adverbs have no typical stem-building elements (Cf. with the –ly suffix incident to qualitative adverbs). They are often morphologically indivisible (north, home, down, etc.), even more often are they related by conversion with prepositions (in, out, behind), conjunctions (since, before), nouns (north, home), adjectives (late, fare).
Only a small group of circumstantial adverbs denoting indefinite time and place have opposites of comparison. Most adverbs of this subclass have no forms of any grammatical category.
Circumstantial adverbs are mostly used in the function of adverbial modifiers of time and place. But sometimes they can be used in other functions, for instance, as attribute:
See the notes above [38].
The room upstairs is vacant [38].
Among circumstantial adverbs there is also a special group of pronominal adverbs when, where, how, why used either as interrogative words to form questions, or as connectives to introduce subordinate clauses:
Where shall we go?
We’ll go where you want. [16, 295]
In the former case, owing to their auxiliary function, they are called interrogative adverbs [16, 295]:
When did you see him last?
Where are you going?
How did you manage to do it? [16, 295]
In the latter case, also owing to their auxiliary function, they called conjunctive adverbs [16, 295]:
Sunday was the day when he was least busy.
The thing to find out is where he is now.
How it was done remains a mystery to me. [16, 295]
The adverb how, in addition to the above functions, may also be placed at the head of an exclamatory sentence. In this case it is often followed by an adjective or an adverb but it may also be used alone. This how is sometimes called the exclamatory how:
How unfair grown-ups are! [38]
Look how well I’m looked after! [38]
According to M. Y. Blokh, circumstantial adverbs are divided into notional and functional [13, 224].
The functional circumstantial adverbs are words of pronominal nature. Besides quantitative (numerical) adverbs mentioned above, they include adverbs of time, place, manner, cause, consequence. Many of these words are used as syntactic connectives and question-forming functionals. Here belong such words as now, here, when, where, so, thus, how, why, etc.
As for circumstantial adverbs of more self-dependent nature, they include two basic sets:
1) adverbs of time: today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, shortly, recently, seldom, early, late, etc.
2) adverbs of place: homeward, eastward, near, far, outside, ashore, etc.
The two varieties express a general idea of temporal and spatial orientation and essentially perform deictic (indicative) functions in the broader sense. Bearing this in mind, we may unite them under the general heading of "orientative" adverbs, reserving the term "circumstantial" to syntactic analysis of utterances [13, 225].
Thus, the whole class of adverbs will be divided, first, into nominal and pronominal, and the nominal adverbs will be subdivided into qualitative and orientative, the former including genuine qualitative adverbs and degree adverbs, the latter falling into temporal and local adverbs, with further possible subdivisions of more detailed specifications [13].
Table 3: Characteristic features of circumstantial adverbs
| 1. Lexico-grammatical meaning | Name certain circumstances attending the action as a whole |
| 2. Typical stem-building affixes | -ward(s) suffix, -ice suffix |
| 3. Morphological categories | Only certain circumstantial adverbs denoting indefinite time and place (soon, late, often, near, far) can form degrees of comparison |
| 4. Typical patterns of combinability | Modify verbs, sometimes nouns or words of nominal characters, occupy different places in the sentence |
| 5. Syntactic functions | Adverbial modifier of time, place, cause, purpose, condition; attribute |
Here is the list of adverbs which are used to indicate the circumstances in which an action takes place [16, 292]:
Accidentally
Privately
Alone
Publicly
Artificially
Regardless
Automatically
Retail
Bodily
Scientifically
Collectively
Secretly
Commercially
Solo
Deliberately
Specially
Directly
Symbolically
Duly
Wholesale
First-class
Full-time
Illegally
Independently
Indirectly
Individually
Innocently
Instinctively
Involuntarily
Jointly
Legally
Logically
Mechanically
Naturally
Officially
Openly
Overtly
Part-time
Personally
Politically
Chapter 3. Syntagmatic valency of adverbs and its actualization in speech
3.1 Syntactic valency and combinability patterns of adverbs
Every word is characterized by its semantic and syntactic valencies potentially inherent in it, which in syntagmatics become the actualization of these potentials, i.e. semantic (or lexical) and syntactic combinabilities.
The establishment of constructional syntagmatic relations is conditioned by the valent properties of the units entering into the syntagmatic relation. The valency of notional units is their potential ability to get into syntagmatic relations and to pattern with the units of appropriate types. The character of valency is predetermined by the semantic specialization and by the semantic completeness of the unit. These characteristics are evidently diametric: the more specialized a notional element is the less valent it is [1]. But it does not mean that semantically specialized notional units are devoid of any valency, they can pattern with extentions which are optional.
Syntagmatic valencies can be of categorial, subcategorial and individual character [26, 40]. The categorial valency is usually specified by the subcategorial valent properties of linguistic units. Their interaction makes the unit active in its syntagmatic behaviour when its valency is realized. For instance, every lexico-grammatical class of notional words possesses categorial and subcategorial valency.
Due to their central role in the sentence notional verbs are the most syntagmatically active elements which realize their valency functioning as “heads” in syntactic constructions of nominal and adverbial complementation.
According to their categorial valency substantive elements display patterning with the qualitative elements which are designed to denote qualities of objects and phenomena. The categorial valency of qualifying elements (adjectives and adverbs) is not strong, they pattern regularly with degree adverbs: too imposing, very short, extremely difficult, easily enough. The subcategorial and individual valencies are in full accord with the categorial valency of linguistic units [26, 42].
Grammatical valency of linguistic units reveals their ability to pattern with particular grammatical forms [4].
Since the valency of linguistic units is their potential ability to contract syntagmatic relations, it should be actualized in speech. This takes place in speech communication whenever linguistic units occur in actual speech units (utterances). The actualization of valency is achieved through the concrete combinability of linguistic units in quite concrete cases of their occurrence in speech units [4].
The realization and actualization of the valent properties pertaining to units and classes of units are conditioned by several factors among which the semantic compatibility of combining elements is of primary regulating significance [26, 42]. The actualization of valency is regulated and conditioned by contextual conditions or the distribution of a linguistic unit.
Here is the list of possible models of grammatical (syntactic) combinability of adverbs in modern English [12, 146]:
Adv + Adj
Adv + Adv
Adv + N
Adv + V
Adj + Adv
N + Adv
V + Adv
Adv + conj + Adj
Adv + conj + Adv
Adv + conj + N
Adv + conj + V
Adj + conj + Adv
N + conj + Adv
V + conj + Adv
Adv + link + Adj
Adv + link + Adv
Adv + link + N
Adv + link + V
Adj + link + Adv
N + link + Adv
V + link + Adv
Adv + prp + Adj
Adv + prp + Adv
Adv + prp + N
Adv + prp + V
Adj + prp + Adv
N + prp + Adv
V + prp + Adv
It follows that adverbs could realize their syntactic valent properties in 7 models of contact combinability and 21 models of distant combinability. But the results of numerous studies demonstrate that the following models of syntactic combinability of adverbs are typical for modern English [12, 147]:
1) Adv + Adj: very nice;
2) Adv + Adv: quite politely;
3) Adv + N: He is quite a child;
4) Adv + V: never come;
5) Adj + Adv: good enough;
6) N + Adv: a step aside;
7) V + Adv: run fast;
8) Adv + conj + Adj: We arrived earlier than usual;
9) Adv + conj + Adv: anywhere else than at home;
10) Adv + conj + V: He knows better than to start a quarrel;
11) Adj + conj + Adv: They were wider apa
12) rt than before;
13) N + link + Adv: The sun is not enough;
14) Adv + prp + N: early in February;
15) N + prp + Adv: the writer of today.
English adverbs realize their syntactic valent properties in all of 7 models of contact combinability and only in 7 (out of 21) models of distant combinability. The nature of restrictions on combinability of adverbs in 14 models of distant combinability in some cases is conditioned by relations of objects and phenomena of extralinguistic reality (N + conj + Adv, V + conj + Adv, Adv + link + Adj, Adv + link + Adv, Adv + link + N, Adv + link + V, Adj + link + Adv, Adv + prp + Adj, Adv + prp + Adv, Adv + prp + V, Adj + prp + Adv, V + prp + Adv), in other cases it is conditioned by the system of the language (Adv + conj + N, V + link + Adv).
Morphological characteristics of the notional units can influence their syntactic valent properties or they can remain neutral with respect to these properties. For instance, the category of degrees of comparison of adverbs remains neutral with respect to valent properties of notional units in such models of combinability as Adv + Adv (well enough, better enough), Adj + Adv (good enough, better enough), V + Adv (move slowly, move more slowly), Adv + prp + N (early in February, earlier in February).
The meaning of models of combinability of English adverbs with other notional units is determined by semantic relations which occur in the process of their interaction.
In accord with their categorial meaning, adverbs are characterised by combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature. The functions of adverbs in these combinations consist in expressing different adverbial modifiers. Adverbs can also refer to whole situations; in this function they are considered under the heading of situation-"determinants" [13, 220]:
The woman was crying hysterically. (an adverbial modifier of manner, in left-hand contact combination with the verb-predicate)
Wilson looked at him appraisingly. (an adverbial modifier of manner, in left-hand distant combination with the verb-predicate)
Without undressing she sat down to the poems, nervously anxious to like them... (an adverbial modifier of property qualification, in right-hand combination with a post-positional stative attribute-adjective)
You've gotten awfully brave, awfully suddenly. (an adverbial modifier of intensity, in right-hand combination with an adverb-aspective determinant of the situation)
Then he stamps his boots again and advances into the room. (two adverbial determinants of the situation: the first — of time, in right-hand combination with the modified predicative construction; the second — of recurrence, in left-hand combination with the modified predicative construction) [13, 220]
Adverbs can also combine with nouns acquiring in such cases a very peculiar adverbial-attributive function, essentially in post-position, but in some cases also in pre-position:
The world today presents a picture radically different from what it was before the Second World War.
Our vigil overnight was rewarded by good news: the operation seemed to have succeeded.
Franklin D. Roosevelt, the then President of the United States, proclaimed the "New Deal" — a new Government economic policy. [13, 220]
The use of adverbs in outwardly attributive positions in such and like examples appears to be in contradiction with the functional destination of the adverb — a word that is intended to qualify a non-nounal syntactic element by definition.
However, this seeming inconsistence of the theoretical interpretation of adverbs with their actual uses can be clarified and resolved in the light of the syntactic principle of nominalisation elaborated within the framework of the theory of paradigmatic syntax [13, 221]. In accord with this principle, each predicative syntactic construction paradigmatically correlates with a noun-phrase displaying basically the same semantic relations between its notional constituents. A predicative construction can be actually changed into a noun-phrase, by which change the dynamic situation expressed by the predicative construction receives a static name. Now, adverbs-determinants modifying in constructions of this kind the situation as a whole, are preserved in the corresponding nominalised phrases without a change in their inherent functional status: