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The grammatical categories of the gerund

§ 117. As already stated the gerund has only two grammatical categories, those of voice and perfect.

Table V

The Grammatical Categories of the Gerund

Voice Perfect	Active	Passive
Non-Perfect	running taking	- being taken
Perfect	having ran having taken	- having been taken

The category of perfect

§ 118. The category of perfect finds its expression, as with other verb forms, in the contrast of non-perfect (indefinite) and perfect forms.

The non-perfect gerund denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb.

Students improve their pronunciation John improved his pronunciation You will improve your pronunciation

by listening to tape recordings.

The perfect gerund denotes an action prior to the action denoted by the finite verb.

I regret I regretted I will always regret

having uttered these words.

The perfect gerund is invariable in indicating priority, whereas the meaning of the non-perfect gerund is vaguer and more flexible and may easily be modified by the context. Thus according to the context the action denoted by the non-perfect gerund may precede or follow the action denoted by the finite verb. The non-perfect gerund may denote a prior action thanks to the lexical meaning of the verb or the preposition suggesting priority, so the non-perfect gerund is generally used after verbs of recollection, gratitude, blame, reproach, punishment and reward.

I shall never forget taking this exam.

I remember talking to him once.

Thank you for helping me.

The non-perfect gerund is to be found in gerundial phrases introduced by the prepositions on and after. The preposition on suggests immediate priority and an instantaneous action.

On reaching the end of the street we turned towards the river.

Tom, after reflecting a little, gave a long sigh.

The lexical meaning of the above-mentioned verbs and prepositions makes the use of the perfect form redundant. It is used, however, when the priority is emphasized, as in following examples:

And all of a sudden David remembered having heard the name before.

He came back after having been away for about ten years.

The non-perfect gerund expresses a succeeding action after verbs, adjectives and prepositions implying reference to a future event (such as to intend, to insist, to object, to suggest, to look forward to) and after the preposition before:

I insist on your staying with us.

We are looking forward to visiting new places.

Ann suggested going to the cinema.

I’m not keen on getting myself into trouble.

We met once more before parting.

The same form occurs after nouns suggesting futurity such as plan, intention, hope, prospect:

There is some hope of catching the last train.

The category of voice

§ 119. The gerund of transitive verbs possesses voice distinctions. Like other verb forms, the active gerund points out that the action is directed from the subject (whether expressed or implied), whereas the passive gerund indicates that the action is directed towards the subject.

Active gerund	Passive gerund
I hate interrupting people. I am not used to talking in that way. On telling me the time, he turned away. He entered without having knocked at the door.	- I hate being interrupted. - I am not used to being talked to in that way. - On being told some impossible hour, he turned away. - The door opened without having been knocked on.

The perfect passive gerund is very rarely used.

There are some verbs (to need, to want, to require, to deserve) and the adjective worth which are followed by an active gerund with passive meaning.

Your hair needs cutting.

This house wants painting.

Your suggestion is worth talking over.

Syntactical Functions of the Gerund

§ 120. The gerund can perform any syntactical function typical of a noun, although in each case it has peculiarities of its own. It may function (a) alone, without modifiers, or (b) as the headword of a gerundial phrase, or (c) as part of a gerundial predicative construction. Since the functions of gerundial constructions are identical with those of single gerunds or gerundial phrases, we shall treat them together. The gerundial constructions are usually translated by clauses.

a) I like driving.

b) I like playing the piano.

c) I like John’s (his) playing the piano.

A gerundial phrase consists of a gerund as headword and one or more words depending on it.

A gerundial construction contains some nominal element denoting the doer of the action expressed by the gerund and the gerund itself with or without some other words depending on it. The nominal element can be a noun in the genitive case or a possessive pronoun (if it denotes a living being), or a noun in the common case (if it does not denote a living being).

I remember John’s telling me that story once.

I remember the weather being extremely fine that summer.

We are absolutely against grown-up children being treated as babies.

There is a growing tendency, especially in informal speech, to use the pronoun in the objective case and a noun in the common case to denote the doer of the action expressed by the gerund with reference to living beings too.

They were all in favour of Tommy playing the main part.

The gerund as subject

§ 121. As a rule the gerund as subject stands in front position.

John(‘s) coming tomorrow will make all the difference.

Growing roses, collecting postage stamps or old swords are hobbies.

The subject stands in postposition in sentences opening with an introductory it, which happens when the meaning of the subject is accentuated and the predicate is a phrase such as to be (of) no use (no good, useless), to make all the (no) difference.

If you want me to help, it’s no good beating about the bush.

It will make no difference your being quiet.

In American English the pattern There is no use in doing it is preferable to It is no use doing it. In sentences with the introductory there the gerund is preceded by the negative pronoun no. Such sentences are usually emphatic.

Well, there’s no avoiding him now.

There is no accounting for his strange behaviour.

The gerund as part of the predicate

The gerund is used in compound predicates of both types - verbal and nominal.

The gerund as part of the compound nominal predicate (predicative)

§ 122. As predicative the gerund expresses either characterization or identity. In the latter case the predicate reveals the meaning of the subject.

John’s hobby is collecting all sorts of bugs and butterflies.

The gerund as part of the compound verbal predicate

§ 123. In combination with phasal verbs the gerund forms a compound verbal phasal predicate. The finite phasal verb denotes a phase of the action expressed by the gerund. The most common phasal verbs followed by the gerund are: to begin*,* to burst out, to start*, to cease, to continue*, to give up, to go on, to finish, to keep on, to leave off, to stop.

* The verbs marked by an asterisk may also be followed by the infinitive.

Again you start arguing.

On hearing the joke everybody burst out laughing.

They kept on arguing.

Your health will improve as soon as you give up smoking.

This is the only function of the gerund that is not characteristic of the noun, for it is caused by the verbal character of the gerund.

A gerundial predicative construction cannot form part of a compound verbal predicate.

The gerund as object

§ 124. The gerund can be used as a direct or a prepositional object. As a direct object it follows a number of monotransitive verbs, some of which take only the gerund, while others may be followed either by the gerund or by the infinitive. The gerund is also used after the adjective worth.

The following verbs are followed only by the gerund:

to admit to appreciate to avoid to deny to detest to enjoy to excuse to fancy to imagine to mention to mind to miss

to postpone to practise to put off to recollect to resent to resist to risk to suggest to understand can’t help can’t stand

We all appreciate your helping us.

Avoid using very long sentences.

Fancy us (our) having to walk a mile in a wind like this!

I’m sorry that I missed seeing you!

Do you mind Ann’s joining us?

Practise listening to tape recordings. It’s good practice!

I find the book worth reading.

Verbs followed by either the gerund or the infinitive.

to have to forget to intend to like (dislike) to plan to prefer

to remember to regret can’t bear can’t afford*

* On the difference between the use of the gerund and the infinitive with some verbs see § 127.

I can’t bear your (you) being so sad.

We can’t afford going to the cinema too often now, we are revising for our exams.

I prefer walking home (to taking a bus).

After verbs taking an object and an objective predicative the gerund, or rather a gerundial phrase or construction, is preceded by an introductory object it.

I find it strange our going without you.

I think it no use your (you) arguing about trifles.

As a prepositional object the gerund may follow (a) monotransitive prepositional verbs, (b) ditransitive verbs taking a direct and a prepositional object, (c) adjectives and statives and (d) participle II, generally when used as a predicative.

a)	to agree to object to look forward			to	to count to depend to rely	on
to hear to learn to think	of
	to persist to consist to succeed		in

We all agree to your opening the discussion.

Happiness consists largely in having true friends.

All depends on the doctor being sent for in time.

They are thinking of doing something for him.

b)	to accuse to suspect		of		to thank to blame to praise to punish to sentence	for
	to prevent to stop	from
	to assist to help in to have no difficulty			in	to congratulate smb. on

Roy accused me of disliking him.

What prevented you from becoming a professional actor?

Who will help me in hanging these pictures?

You should blame yourself for getting such a low mark.

I had no difficulty in getting the tickets for the concert.

Note: As is seen from above a prepositional for-object has a shade of causal meaning.

c)	to be afraid to be aware to be conscious to be capable to be fond	of	to be ignorant to be proud to be sure	of
to be responsible for to be sorry about to be keen on

I don’t have the TV too loud, because I’m afraid of disturbing the neighbours.