be there.
“It’s a bit lighter in the park,” he said, “but take it (an electric torch) for fear you get off the path.”
In some cases the meaning of purpose in clauses introduced by lest and for fear that is weakened so that the clause expresses rather general motivation than purpose, or else an outcome of the action in the main clause, as in:
Lest the wall should collapse, they evacuated the building. (They did not evacuate the building with the
purpose of causing the wall to collapse.)
Better chain up the dog for fear he bites.
Note:
The conjunctions that, so that, lest, so are not confined only to clauses of purpose: that may introduce subject clauses, predicative clauses, and object clauses;
so that may introduce clauses of result, lest - clauses of cause, subject clauses, predicative clauses and object clauses; so - clauses of result and of cause.
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of cause
§ 174. Adverbial clauses of cause (or causative clauses) express the reason, cause, or motivation of the action expressed in the main clause or of its content as a whole.
Causative clauses may be introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, so, that, lest, seeing (that), considering; or by the composite conjunctions for the reason that, in view of the fact that, in so far as (insofar as), by reason of. Of these the conjunction as is preferable when the sentence opens with a clause of cause.
As he was tired he preferred to stay at home.
Since there is no help, let us try and bear it as best we can.
They went down arm-in-arm - James with Imogen, because his pretty grandchild cheered him.
In so far as it is difficult to assign an external cause to certain happenings, they are written off as
uncaused or spontaneous.
As can be seen from the above examples, the causative clause may stand in preposition to the main clause, or follow it. It may also be embedded within the main clause, as in:
She loved to give, since she had plenty, and sent presents here and there to Lilian, the children, and
others.
Each of the conjunctions and conjunctive phrases expresses a certain shade of causative meaning, and so they are not always interchangeable. Because usually introduces clauses with the meaning of real cause. This can be illustrated by the ability of because-causes (but not others) to be included in questions. Thus it is correct to say:
Did you ask him because he was famous or for another reason?
But it is wrong to say: Did you ask him since he was famous...?
Unlike because, the conjunctions since and as introduce clauses with an explanatory meaning, or else that of motivation.
Since you are here, we may begin our talk.
The other reason why causal conjunctions, though synonymous, are not always interchangeable with because, is that some of them are polyfunctional: as and since may be conjunctions of time, as well as of cause. For example:
His mood changed as they marched down to the clocks, (temporal relation)
Note 1:
Causative relation may be found in compound sentences with the coordinating conjunction for. Its coordinate character is unmistakably shown by the fact that the clause with for cannot stand before the other half of the sentence.
Note 2:
Some causative conjunctions (as, because) may connect their clause to the main clause rather loosely, in which case the relation between the clauses is similar to coordination (such clauses may even be independent sentences). The causative clause generally expresses some grounds on which we can judge of the truthfulness of some idea expressed in the main clause, as in:
He was, I presume, a relative of the coachman’s, as he lay atop of the luggage, with his face towards the
rain.
Here the subordinate clause as he lay atop of the luggage, with his face towards the rain, does not express the cause, but gives some grounds which serve to prove the truthfulness of the supposition expressed in the main clause.
I must have been very weak at the time; because I know, after the first half hour or so, I seemed to take
no interest whatever in my food.
In this sentence the first clause is separated by a semicolon, which is not typical of subordination and is a mark of loose connection.
In colloquial English a clause of cause may be joined rather loosely to a sentence which cannot be its main clause: Are you going to the post-office? - Because I have some letters to post. (I ask you this because I have some letters to post.)
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of result (consequence)
§ 175. An adverbial clause of result denotes some consequence or result of the action expressed in the main clause. It may be introduced by the conjunction so that, or simply that.
Light fell on her there, so that Soames could see her face, eyes, hair, strangely as he remembered them,
strangely beautiful.
Clauses with the correlatives so and such (so... that, such... that) may express manner with a shade of resultative meaning and are treated as such. However one should bear in mind that the line of demarcation between cases of jo... that and so that is rather difficult to draw when the two words follow one another.
The complex sentence with mutually subordinated clauses
§ 176. In complex sentences of this type it is impossible to differentiate which of the clauses is the main one and which is subordinate. We shall consider two patterns of such sentences.
§ 177. Clauses of proportionate agreement (or comparison). They express a proportional relationship - proportionality or equivalence; the more intensive is the action or quality described in one clause, the more intensive becomes the other, described in the following clause. Although sentences containing such clauses are undoubtedly complex, it is nevertheless impossible to state which of the clauses is the main one and which is subordinate, since they are of the same pattern -two twin clauses, looking like one another.
Clauses of proportionate agreement are joined by the conjunction as (correlated with the adverb of degree so in the other clause); or by means of the correlative adverbs so... so in both clauses. Proportionate agreement between the clauses may also be expressed by the correlative particles the... the, followed by the comparative degree of adverbs (or adjectives).
As time went on, so their hopes began to wane.
The more he reflected on the idea, the more he liked it.
The further I penetrated into London, the profounder grew the stillness.
Proportionate agreement occurs in such aphoristic sentences as the more the better, the sooner the better, which may refer to various situations.
§ 178. The second pattern of mutually subordinated clauses expresses temporal relations - a quick succession of actions or events, often overlapping with one another for a short period of time. These clauses form an indivisible whole owing to correlative elements and sometimes partial inversion in the first clause. The order in which the elements follow one another is fixed. As partial inversion is possible when the predicate consists of the operator and the notional part, only analytical forms or compound predicates are used.
There are several variants of the pattern:
1. No sooner... than.
No sooner had Tom seen us than he jumped into a bus.
No sooner could the chairman finish his speech than a great noise started.
2. Scarcely... when, scarcely... before.
Scarcely had he seen us when he jumped into a bus.
The door had scarcely closed behind her before it opened again.
3. Hardly... when.
Hardly could he finish his last sentence when a great noise started.
I had hardly finished when Holmes returned with the news that the boy was putting in the horse.
4. Negation... when.
He had not closed the door when he heard somebody knock at it.
5. Just... when.
He had just cut a mighty slice of bread when he heard somebody’s footsteps.
The role of the past perfect tense in the first clause is also of importance as it does not manifest in this case real precedence but peculiar temporal relation, that of a quick succession of events or actions, often overlapping.
§ 179. We shall consider sentences consisting of two clauses joined according to some pattern of subordination, but different from other complex sentences in the relation the clauses bear to one another. There are several types of pseudo-complex sentences. In the first type the splitting of the sentence into clauses is a device for the sake of emphasizing this or that part of the sentence; actually the meaning of the sentence does not require splitting (or cleaving) into clauses. These sentences are called emphatic (or cleft) sentences.
Emphatic (or cleft) sentences
§ 180. These sentences in their turn fall into three patterns, in all of which the form of the complex sentence is used to emphasize some part of the sentence.
In the first pattern the emphasized part is placed in the position of the predicative, which is followed by a clause. The main clause is patterned on the model of the it-clause and the subordinate clause may be patterned as an attributive, temporal, local or nominal clause.
It is my friend who told me this.
The role of the main clause is purely emphatic, as the information which is divided between the main and the subordinate clause can be expressed in a simple sentence.
It is my friend who told me this ——> My friend told me this.
It is the examination that you and I are concerned with ——-> You and I are concerned with the
examination.
If is not that she loved him ——> She did not love him.
It was the idea they were buying, not the project ——> They were buying the idea, not the project.
The emphatic position may be occupied by a whole clause.
It was what she said that spoiled the impression.
Was it because dusk was gathering that you failed to see anything?
In the last two sentences the content of the predicative clause is emphasized.
The position of the predicative serves for placing greater emphasis on the part occupying this position. Semantically the emphasized part may fulfil different roles.
It was not till this very moment that I recollected him ——> did not recollect him till this very moment.
(The emphasized part is adverbial modifier of time.)
It is not that I hate you ——> I don’t hate you. (Negation is emphasized.)
The cleft sentences and the simple ones given above are similar in meaning as they describe the same situation. The difference lies in a special accentuation of the bold-faced words.
The subordinate clause may be joined asyndetically: It is not you I hate.
Pseudo-complex sentences of this type may be interrogative.
What is it that happened to you?
What was it he disliked so much ?
A sentence can be transformed into different cleft sentences depending on what element is to be emphasized. For example:
| John liked to read books at home - | → It was John who liked to read books at home. → It was books that John liked to read at home. → It was at home that John liked to read books. |
The second pattern of cleft sentences is used to emphasize the predicate, which is split into the operator in the subordinate subject clause and the infinitive in the main clause.
What John liked was to read books at home.
What he disliked so much was to be addressed by passers-by.
The particle to is often omitted.
What he has done is spoil the whole thing.
The third pattern of pseudo-complex emphatic sentences begins with the conjunction if, which does not introduce a conditional clause.
If I feel sorry for anyone it’s Norman ——> I really feel sorry for Normal.
Appended clauses (повторы с уточнением)
§ 181. There are several varieties of appended clauses, modelled on the pattern of the main clause. These are used to intensify or reinforce a statement in the previous clause. The most common type of appended clauses are tag questions (tags). You are tired, aren't you? You are not ill, are you?
In non-formal style there is another form of appended clause, which is elliptical.
He is always very gloomy, is that John of yours.
She is a clever girl, is your friend.
In such sentences the link-verb to be is generally repeated, or a form of the verb to do is used.
He never told me anything, did your brother.
Note:
The appended part may consist only of a nominal group.
He is a clever boy, your brother John.
Such cases should not be confused with appended clauses.
Absolute (or indendent) subordinate clauses
§ 182. Subordinate clauses may be used absolutely as independent exclamatory sentences. They may have the form of a conditional or comparative clause.
If only I knew his address!
As though you didn’t know!
That he should be so late!
Parenthetical clauses (parentheses)
§ 183. A parenthetical clause (parenthesis) interrupts another sentence with which it is either not connected syntactically or is only loosely connected with separate parts of the sentence.
Parenthetical clauses are often called comment clauses, because they do not simply add to the information given in the sentence, but comment on its truth, the manner of saying it, or express the attitude of the speaker toward it. In some cases it is direct address to the listener or reader.
He waited (which was his normal occupation) and thought, like other citizens, of the cost of living...
(Some information is added.)
...there is, as it were, a transparent barrier between myself and strong emotions. (The figurative meaning
of the utterance is indicated.)
My parents, you know, were peasants. (Direct address to the listener.)
Parenthetical clauses may occur in front, mid- and end position, but the end position is mainly restricted to informal style. They are usually marked off from the rest of the sentence by commas, dashes, or parentheses (brackets) in written English and by a separate tone unit in speech.
Parenthetical clauses may be patterned like independent sentences, coordinate, main, or subordinate clauses. In all cases the mechanism of turning a sentence or clause into a parenthesis is the same - the inverting of their usual sequence or placing the parenthetical clause in an unusual position, which changes their communicative value. The embedded (включенное) structure acquires a secondary status, informing the reader of the author's opinion of the utterance, or containing some comment on the content of the embedding (включающее) sentence, or else addressing the reader directly. The embedding structure is primary in importance and structurally independent. The following sentences may be taken as examples: