Geographic Information Systems Essay, Research Paper
Strategic Planning and Management Through The Application of Computer Technology
On the walls of caves near Lascaux, France, Cro-Magnon hunters drew pictures of the
animals they hunted 35,000 years ago. Associated with the animal drawings is a map;
track lines and tallies thought to depict migration routes. These early records followed the
two-element structure of modern geographic information systems: a graphic file linked to
an attribute database. The map has been in existence in much the same form for thousands
of years. In the traditional form it suffers from a number of problems. Firstly, maps are
static and therefore difficult and expensive to keep up to date. This leads to a second
problem, in that because they are static they lose flexibility, for example, maps exist as
discrete sheets and inevitably your area of interest lies on the corner of four adjacent
sheets. In addition maps are often very complex and may require an expert to extract the
particular data which are of interest. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can be
regarded as the enhanced, high-tech equivalent to maps. An individual computer generated
map contains information that is used in different ways by different individuals and
organizations. It represents the means of locating ourselves in relation to the world around
us. Maps are used in diverse applications; from locating telephone wires and gas mains
under our streets, to displaying the extent of de-forestation in the Brazilian Amazon. From
a management point of view, accurate and relevant information provides the key to
effective decision making. In today’s modern societies, decisions should be made quickly
and based on reliable data and sound processes even though there are many differing
viewpoints to consider and a large amount of information to process. Nowadays, the
impact of decisions is ever greater, often because they involve conflicts between society
and individuals, or between development and preservation. Due to this, information should
therefore be readily available to decision-makers. Without doubt, during the past few
years, the drastic increase in access to computers has altered our planning practices.
Planners that specialize in the application of computer technology to planning and
planning-related issues are concerned with ameliorating the crucial process of
decision-making by providing up-to-date information and new methods for looking and
analyzing physical, social, and economic data. In turn, Geographic Information Systems
and other similar new technologies are constantly and constructively changing the way we
view our physical environment, allowing planners to simultaneously study the physical,
social, and economic composition of geographic areas based on such hi-tech maps. The
objective of this essay is to study and demonstrate the benefits offered by Geographic
Information Systems, as a cost-effective managerial tool, to strategic planning and
management within all industries. Before commencing, the following section provides a
brief overview of the basic concepts and functions of a GIS. Concepts & Functions of
Geographic Information Systems Even though numerous attempts have been made to
determine the exact definition of a GIS, seldom to theorists directly relate it to the
strategic issue of planning and management. Nevertheless, the following is a rather
successful attempt of creating a full, well balanced and precise definition: “A system of
hardware, software, and procedures designed to support the capture, management,
manipulation, analysis, modeling and display of spatially-referenced data for solving
complex planning and management problems.” (NCGIA lecture by David Cowen, 1989).
A primary benefit of a GIS is that it integrates, in a generic manner, data and information
that may be scattered throughout an organization, in different departments and on
different documents. But it is the ability to integrate common database operations such as
query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis benefits
offered by maps which distinguishes GIS from other information systems and makes it
valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting
outcomes, and planning strategies. More importantly, GIS offers decision makers at
various levels the capability of integrated and coordinated planning, efficient coordination
of construction, and development of preventative and routine maintenance programs on
the basis of reliable data and long-range plans. The GIS serves users on four levels:
Basic: archive or file for accessing up-to-date and reliable information on the various
elements in the system. Planning: accessing data for planning at all levels of detail, from
conceptual planning to detailed design. Management: decision-making at all levels of
management, from strategic to operational. General: aggregation of information for
businesses. At senior management levels, GIS serves as an indispensable aid to policy
definition and control of high priority and critical regions, and assists in decision making
with respect to planning and development on different time horizons, and in the
immediate, intermediate and long range. Generally speaking, a Geographic Information
System links spatial information (CAD) to alphanumeric information (database) – to
produce a geographically referenced database. GIS software allows the user to collect,
edit, analyze, and display this information, which are stored in the following three ways: 1.
Points: location of electric and telephone poles, fire hydrants, traffic lights etc. 2. Lines:
data defined topologically in a network or linear, such as water pipelines, road centerlines,
communication networks etc. 3. Polygons: closed areas, each with its own distinct
characteristics such as parcellation, land use, surface cover, structures etc. A Geographic
Information System can be divided into two basic types of data: graphic and non-graphic.
Graphic data, which are digital descriptions of map features, are used by the GIS to
generate a map or cartographic ‘picture’ on a display device, on paper or through other
media. On the other hand, nongraphic or textual data are representations of the
characteristics, qualities, or relationships of map features and geographic locations. The
following diagram illustrates the relationships of graphic elements to nongraphic data,
which allows the creation of graphic software, a GIS, that integrates visual material with
its appropriate data: (Antenucci et al., Geographic Information Systems; A Guide to the
Technology, USA, 1991, P.87) In order to operate, the GIS depends on the integration of
three aspects of computer technology, which are presented in the diagram below: The
database management is composed of graphic and nongraphic data, whereas the graphic
capabilities involve routines that manipulate, display, and plot graphic representations of
the data, and spatial analysis tools deal with algorithms and techniques that allow spatial
analysis. (Antenucci et al., Geographic Information Systems; A Guide to the Technology,
USA, 1991, p.21). A GIS provides the facility to extract the different sets of information
from a map (roads, settlements, vegetation, etc.) and use these as required. This provides
great flexibility, allowing a paper map to be quickly produced which exactly meets the
needs of the user. However, GIS goes further, because the data are stored on a computer,
analysis and modeling become possible. One might, for instance, point at two buildings,
ask the computer to describe each from an attached database (much more information than
could be displayed on a paper map) and then to calculate the best route between these.
Unquestionably, map making and geographic analysis are not new, but a GIS performs
these tasks better and faster than do the old manual methods. And, before GIS technology,
only a few people had the skills necessary to use geographic information to help with
decision making and problem solving. Developing a Geographic Information System GIS
belongs to the class of computer systems that require the building of large databases
before they become useful. Unlike many micro-computer applications where a user can
begin use after the purchase of the hardware and software, the use of a GIS requires that
large spatial databases be created, appropriate hardware and software be purchased,
applications be developed, and all components be installed, integrated and tested before
users can begin to use the GIS. The adoption of a GIS by an organization introduces
fundamental change into the organization in its thinking about data as prior information
technology allowed data to be collected and related to activities and projects individually.
Organized stores of data were the exception rather than common practice. This led to
duplicate data collection and storage (as in different departments) and to the possibility of
erroneous data existing in one or more locations. One of the goals of computer systems
and database development is to eliminate redundant data collection and storage. The
principle is that data should be collected only once and then accessed by all who need it.
This not only reduces redundancy; it also allows for more accurate data and a greater
understanding of how multiple departments use the same data. The necessary condition for
successful computer system and database development is for different departments and
agencies to cooperate in the development of the system. A database becomes an
organization-wide resource and is created and managed according to a set of database
principles. The “decision” to develop a GIS is made incrementally. The information needed
to determine the feasibility and desirability of developing a GIS is not available until
several of the planning steps have been completed. The key decision points are: Decision
to investigate GIS for the organization – the initial decision to begin the process. This is an
initial feasibility decision and is based on the likelihood that a GIS will be useful and
effective. It is fairly important to identify the major participants at this point – both
departments within organizations and the group of organizations, particularly key
organizations, those who represent a majority of the uses and who will contribute most of
the data. Decision to proceed with detailed planning and design of the database – at this
time, the applications, data required, and sources of the data have been identified.
Applications can be prioritized and scheduled and the benefits stream determined. Also,
applications to be tested during the pilot study and the specific questions to be answered
by the pilot study will have been determined. A preliminary decision will need to be made
as to which GIS software will be used to conduct the pilot study. Decision to acquire the
GIS hardware and software – this decision follows the preparation of the detailed database
plan, the pilot study and, if conducted, the benchmark tests. This is the first point in the
development process where the costs of the GIS can reasonably be estimated, the schedule
for data conversion developed, and targets for users to begin use determined. Developing
a GIS is more than simply buying the appropriate GIS hardware and software. The single
most demanding part of the GIS development process is building the database. This task
takes the longest time, costs the most money, and requires the most effort in terms of
planning and management. Most local governments, for instance, will acquire the GIS
hardware and software from a GIS vendor. Choosing the right GIS for a particular local
government involves matching the GIS needs to the functionality of the commercial GIS.
For many agencies, especially smaller local governments, choosing a GIS will require help
from larger, more experienced agencies, knowledgeable university persons and from
qualified consultants. The GIS development cycle is a set of eleven steps starting with the
needs assessment and ending with on-going use and maintenance of the GIS system. These
steps are presented here as a logical progression with each step being completed prior to
the initiation of the next step. While this view is logical, it is not the way the world always
works. Some of the activities in the process may happen concurrently, may be approached
in an iterative manner, or may need to be restructured depending on the size and character
of the organization conducting the study and the resources available to plan for the GIS.
Building a Geographic Information System is a highly consuming task, not only from a
systems development point of view, but also from the human resources aspect. The system
could perfectly function, technically speaking, and still bring forth deceiving results. Staff
training, education, and interaction with the GIS is as important as creating the system
itself. It is both the combination of an appropriately built system that meets the user’s
needs, in addition to well-trained personnel, that will allow an organization to exploit the
GIS’s full potential. GIS: A Vital Tool for Strategic Planning and Management: Today,
Geographic Information Systems are being applied in all different sorts of organizations,
ranging from government municipalities to marketing firms and finance corporations, as it
provides a decisive tool, through its incorporation of spatial graphics to data, towards
effective and productive decision making. Initially used by the government, such systems
have now increased popularity amongst a wide range of businesses and agencies, whose
astonishing success has echoed in the corners of all markets. Constructed specifically for
all sorts of geographic purposes, the system has demonstrated its ability to meet user
needs and provide significant benefits towards planning and management for all sectors.
London’s Heathrow Airport case presents an example of how a GIS is used to manage
vast amounts of information, thus dealing with large stores of constantly changing data
that is required for airport management. For the management and maintenance of the
airport, an estimated 400,000 technical and engineering plans are required. In addition,
with already more than 50 million travellers in 1994, the airport was in need of a system
which could meet the customer demands of an ever-increasing number of passengers, and
maintain accurate records of each change to the airport services and structures.
Nowadays, through a GIS, the Airport Planning group, for instance, “issues safety
regulations detailing what construction works is being carried out, which diversions are in
effect and other relevant information. Up-to-date information can be quickly accessed
from the database and used to produce high quality computer-drafted A3 or A4 plans
supporting safety notices.” Indeed, the GIS currently being used at Heathrow Airport has
showed real financial benefits and turning around times for record requests have been
greatly improved. By giving the “the right information to the people who want it [and]
when they need it,” the system is rapidly being accepted as part of the organization’s
decision making process (Mapping Awareness, Plane Language- Managing Information at
Heathrow Airport, October 1995). The UK water industry has greatly benefited from the
presence of GIS technology. East Surrey Water (ESW), a water company serving the
southern fringe of London, East Surrey, and West Kent, demonstrates one of many
success stories of the GIS in the private sector. By installing a Geographic Information
System, the water company managed to improve its planning and services to customers
through a more targeted and cost-effective works program to further improve water
quality and supply, which meant less paperwork and duplication of tasks, swift access to
vital information and a simple updating system (Mapping Awareness, Do Go Near the
Water: GIS Boosts East’s Surrey Water’s Planning, Efficiency and Service, December
1995). On the other hand, UK water companies still currently face up to 30 per cent loss
of the water they produce, but this time due to a different reason: water leakage. Reducing
water leakage is the prime concern of British water companies, as they are endlessly
developing new modelling and water-distribution management systems to combat this
massive problem. At Thames Water Utilities, though, a PC-based GIS system was
installed as an alternative solution to this financially devastating problem. The system,