VGOVERNMENT A revolution in 1932 transformed Thailand into a constitutional monarchy after centuries of rule by absolute monarchs, but until recently the country was largely controlled by the military. Although King Phumiphon Adunyadet has little direct power, he exercises considerable influence on political leaders. The nation’s 16th constitution took effect in 1997. It is the first of Thailand’s constitutions to be drafted by a process involving public debate, and the first to include a bill of rights guaranteeing equality to all citizens.
AExecutive Under the constitution the king is Thailand’s head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. A cabinet is headed by a prime minister, who is the country’s chief executive official.
BLegislature Legislative power in Thailand is vested in the bicameral National Assembly, which consists of a 500-member House of Representatives and a 245-member Senate. Representatives are directly elected to four-year terms. Prior to the 1997 constitution, senators were appointed by the military; however, under the new constitution they too will be directly elected to four-year terms.
CJudiciary Thai citizens are guaranteed due process and equal justice under the law. The highest court is the Sarn Dika (Supreme Court), sitting in Bangkok, which is the court of final appeal in all civil, criminal, and bankruptcy cases. A single court of appeals (Sarn Uthorn) has appellate jurisdiction in all cases. Courts of first instance include magistrates’ courts with limited civil and criminal jurisdiction, provincial courts with unlimited jurisdiction, and civil and criminal courts with exclusive jurisdiction in Bangkok proper and Thon Buri. Thailand’s constitution recognizes the independence of the judiciary.
DLocal Government Each of Thailand’s 76 provinces, called changwats, are under the control of a governor appointed by the Ministry of Interior, except Bangkok Metropolis, where the governor is elected by popular vote. District (amphur) officials are also appointed. Larger towns are governed by elected and appointed officials, and elected heads hold power at local levels.
EHealth and Welfare The Ministry of Public Health is charged with disaster relief, child welfare, protection of the disabled and destitute, and development programs for northern hill tribes. Special programs were initiated in the 1980s to assist refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia in the east. The spread of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), which causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), is a serious public health problem in Thailand. According to the Thai Ministry of Public Health, the number of estimated HIV-infected people in Thailand was about 600,000 in 1994. Thailand’s anti-AIDS campaign, launched in 1991, was among the first in Southeast Asia. The campaign includes AIDS awareness programs, encouraging Thai to avoid brothels and use condoms. Clinics offer anonymous testing for HIV infection. Thailand has one physician for every 4288 residents and one hospital bed for every 586 people.
FDefense Military service is compulsory for two years for all able-bodied men between the ages of 21 and 30. In 1997 the armed forces included an army of 150,000 members, an air force of 43,000, and a navy of 73,000.
VIHISTORY Present-day Thai are believed to be the descendants of Tai-speaking people who lived in the Black River (S?ng D?) valley of northern Vietnam, the extreme northeastern section of Laos, and neighboring sections of China around the 5th to 8th century AD. These Tai people may have spread into Thailand between the 7th to 13th century. By the end of the 13th century the Tai had formed a political entity and emerged as a nation afterward known as the Thai. In 1350 a unified Thai kingdom was established by a ruler known posthumously as Rama Tibodi. He founded the kingdom of Ayutthaya and made the city of Ayutthaya his capital. Despite intermittent warfare with the Cambodians and the Burmans, the Ayutthaya kingdom flourished during the next four centuries, conquering Cambodia and the surviving states in the north. Meanwhile, the Thai had come into contact that was not always friendly with various European and Asian nations, including Portugal, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and China.
ASovereignty Embattled In 1767, following a two-year siege, Myanmar troops captured and destroyed Ayutthaya. The rule of Myanmar overlords in Thailand was shortly terminated when General Pya Taksin proclaimed himself king. When Taksin was executed by his ministers, the crown passed to General Pya Chakri, founder of the present dynasty of Thai kings, who ruled from 1782 to 1809 as Rama I. The British and Thai governments concluded a commercial treaty in 1826. Because of the rights and privileges obtained by this agreement, British influence increased in Thailand throughout the remainder of the 19th century.
Owing to the statesmanship of two rulers, however, Thailand was spared the fate of colonization that befell its neighbors. Interested in Western science and civilization, King Mongkut (Rama IV), who reigned from 1851 to 1868, invited many European advisers to assist him in modernizing the country. His son, King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), who reigned during the height of the onslaught of European colonization, continued the vigorous modernization efforts of his father and managed to maintain the country’s independence, albeit at considerable cost in territorial concessions. For example, in 1893 Thailand became embroiled in a boundary dispute with France, then the dominant power in Cochin China, Annam, Tonkin, and Cambodia. The French dispatched warships to Bangkok and forced the Thai to yield Cambodia and all of Laos east of the Mekong River. Additional Thai territory, situated west of the Mekong, was acquired by France in 1904 and 1907. Thailand gave up control over four states in the Malay Peninsula to the United Kingdom in 1909. In exchange, the British relinquished most of their extraterritorial rights in the rest of the kingdom. The Thai government entered World War I (1914-1918) on the side of the Allies in July 1917. Thailand subsequently became a founding member of the League of Nations.
In June 1932, during the reign of King Prajadhipok, a small group of Thai military and political leaders organized a successful revolt against the government, until then an absolute monarchy. The insurgents, led by Pridi Phanomyong and Colonel Phibun Songgram, proclaimed a constitutional monarchy on June 27. Royalist opposition was finally overcome in October 1933. King Prajadhipok, increasingly unhappy with the new government and in ill health, abdicated in March 1935 in favor of his nephew, Prince Ananda Mahidol. Thailand invalidated all of its treaties with foreign nations in November 1936. Under the provisions of new treaties negotiated in the following year, the government obtained complete autonomy over its internal and external affairs.
BWorld War II With Japanese encouragement and support, Phibun’s government made demands on France, beginning in 1940, for the return of the territory ceded in and after 1893. The dispute was settled, with Japanese mediation, in May 1941. By the terms of the settlement, Thailand received about 54,000 sq km (about 21,000 sq mi) of territory, including part of western Cambodia and all of Laos west of the Mekong River. The relations between Japan and Thailand became increasingly friendly thereafter. On December 8, 1941, a few hours after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Thai government granted Japan the right to move troops across the country to the Malayan frontier. Thailand declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom on January 25, 1942. Phibun’s pro-Japanese government, however, was overthrown in July 1944; Pridi took over, and under his leadership considerable sympathy for the Allied cause developed among the Thai people.
Thailand concluded a treaty with the United Kingdom and India in January 1946, renouncing, among other things, its claims to Malayan territory obtained during the war. Diplomatic relations with the United States were resumed in the same month. In November 1946 Thailand reached an agreement with France providing for the return to France of the territory obtained in 1941. Thailand was admitted to the United Nations (UN) on December 15, 1946, becoming the 55th member. Meanwhile, on June 9, 1946, King Ananda Mahidol had died under mysterious circumstances. A regency was appointed to rule during the minority of his brother and successor, King Rama IX.
CDomestic Instability On November 9, 1947, a military junta led by Phibun seized control of the government. Except for a brief interlude early in 1948, Phibun thereafter retained control of the government until 1957. His regime, essentially a dictatorship, based its foreign policy on maintaining close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. King Rama IX assumed the throne on May 5, 1950. After the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, Thailand assigned approximately 4000 men to the UN forces.
On November 29, 1951, a group of army officers seized control of the government in a bloodless coup d’?tat and reestablished the authoritarian constitution of 1932, with some changes. Phibun was retained as premier. Meanwhile, a Free Thai movement, supported by the Chinese Communists and nominally headed by Pridi, had been formed in China.
Thai representatives took part in the Geneva Conference of April 1954, which temporarily ended the war in Indochina. In September 1954, Thailand was a founding member and Bangkok became the headquarters of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).
In September 1957, Phibun’s government was overthrown by a military coup d’?tat led by Marshall Sarit Thanarat, commander in chief of the Thai armed forces. A coalition government was formed in January 1958 under the premiership of Lieutenant General Thanom Kittikachorn. Another coup in October 1958, again headed by Sarit, overthrew the Thanom government. The constitution was suspended, a state of martial law was proclaimed, and all political parties were banned. In the early 1960s the government showed increasing concern over a rapidly growing Communist guerrilla movement in the north. The increase in terrorist attacks was one of the major problems faced by Thanom, who became prime minister again on Sarit’s death in December 1963. The new government was also concerned about the deteriorating position of the pro-Western government in neighboring Laos and about the Vietnam War (1959-1975).
DStruggle for Democracy On the political front, the government took gradual steps toward the restoration of political rights suspended in 1958. Elections to municipal councils were held for the first time in a decade in December 1967. A permanent constitution was promulgated in June 1968. Parliamentary elections were held in February 1969, in which the United Thai People’s Party won a plurality of 75 seats in the house of representatives. The largest opposition group, the Democratic Party, won 56 seats.
Beginning about 1969, the United States changed its role in Southeast Asia by gradually withdrawing its forces from Vietnam and by seeking friendly relations with China. These developments caused Thailand to establish a more flexible foreign policy, especially toward China and North Vietnam. At the same time, Thailand continued to face guerrilla activities in the north and along the border with Malaysia. The U.S. withdrawal from Southeast Asia had an adverse effect on the Thai economy. The declining economy and guerrilla activities were given as reasons for the establishment of a military government in November 1971. The military, led by General Thanom, abolished the constitution and dissolved parliament. In December 1972 a new constitution was proclaimed.
In 1973 a series of student-led demonstrations against the military government resulted in Thanom’s resignation in October and the appointment of a civilian cabinet. In late 1974 a new constitution was approved, and a freely elected government was formed in early 1975. Stability, however, remained elusive, and new elections in April 1976 made little difference. In September of that year the return of former Prime Minister Thanom from exile in Singapore led to bloody battles in Bangkok between leftist students and his right-wing supporters. In early October, as disorder was spreading, a military group led by Admiral Sa-ngad Chaloryu seized control of the country and installed a conservative government. A year later, however, that government also was brought down by Sa-ngad and his group. Sa-ngad instructed a new cabinet to try to bridge the divisions of Thai society and improve relations with the neighboring Communist regimes. Yet another constitution was promulgated in December 1978, and in April 1979 elections were held for a new House of Representatives. The military-installed government, however, remained in power until March 1980, when it was replaced by a new cabinet, headed by General Prem Tinsulanonda. Elections in 1983 left General Prem as head of a new coalition government. He dissolved the National Assembly in 1986 and called new elections. His party won, without a majority, and he again formed a coalition government.
After elections in July 1988, Chatichai Choonhavan became prime minister. A military junta ousted him in February 1991 and installed an interim civilian government. After pro-military parties won the elections of March 1992, demonstrations in Bangkok calling for democratic reforms were violently suppressed. New elections in September resulted in another coalition government, with a veteran politician, Chuan Leekpai, as prime minister. In February 1995 the government passed a sweeping package that amended almost all the articles of the 1991 constitution. The prodemocracy changes included lowering the voting age from 20 to 18 years and changing the number of representatives from a fixed number to one based on population. In addition, Thai citizens were guaranteed due process and equal justice under the law.
In May 1995 the Chuan Leekpai government collapsed amid accusations of wrongdoing in a government land reform project. In July 1995, after new elections, the leader of Chart Thai (Thai Nation Party), Banharn Silpa-archa, became prime minister. Less than a year into Silpa-archa’s government, accusations emerged of corruption among his appointees, prompting investigation into bribes, abuse of authority, and questionable bank loans. In 1996, after a no confidence debate in parliament, Silpa-archa resigned as prime minister. New elections secured a slim victory for the New Aspiration Party (NAP); its leader Chavalit Yongchaiyudh became the next Thai prime minister.
In 1997 Thailand’s economy experienced a significant setback as the baht fell sharply against the dollar, many financial institutions and other businesses failed, and unemployment rose. The crisis then spread, affecting the economies of other Southeast Asian nations. To prevent the crisis from spreading further, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) agreed to provide an aid package of loans to Thailand. In return, Thailand agreed to adopt a series of measures intended to stabilize its economy.
In October 1997 Thailand adopted a new constitution, with provisions aimed at controlling political corruption and expanding civil liberties. Facing criticism for his handling of the economy, Yongchaiyudh resigned as prime minister in November, and Chuan Leekpai was appointed to the post a second time.
IINTRODUCTION Thailand, formerly Siam, officially Kingdom of Thailand, kingdom in Southeast Asia, bounded by Myanmar (formerly known as Burma) on the north and west, by Laos on the northeast, by Cambodia and the Gulf of Thailand (Siam) on the southeast, by Malaysia on the south, and by the Andaman Sea and Myanmar on the southwest. The total area of Thailand is 513,115 sq km (198,115 sq mi). Bangkok is the capital and largest city.
IILAND AND RESOURCES Thailand lies within the Indochinese Peninsula (see Indochina), except for the southern extremity, which occupies a portion of the Malay Peninsula. The country’s extreme dimensions are about 1770 km (about 1100 mi) from north to south and about 800 km (about 500 mi) from east to west. The physiography is highly diversified, but the mountain systems are the predominant feature of the terrain. A series of parallel ranges, with a north-south trend, occupy the northern and western portions of the country. Extreme elevations occur in the westernmost ranges, which extend along the Myanmar frontier and rise to 2595 m (8514 ft) atop Doi Inthanon, the highest point in Thailand. The peninsular area, which is bordered by narrow coastal plains, reaches a high point of 1790 m (5860 ft) atop Khao Luang. Another mountain system projects, in a northern and southern direction, through central Thailand. At its southern extremity, the system assumes an east-west trend and extends to the eastern frontier. Doi Pia Fai (1270 m/4167 ft) is its highest peak. The region to the north and east of this system consists largely of a low, barren plateau, called the Khorat Plateau. Making up about one-third of the country, the plateau is bordered by the Mekong River valley. Between the central and western mountains is a vast alluvial plain traversed by the Chao Phraya, the chief river of Thailand. This central plain, together with the fertile delta formed by the Chao Phraya near Bangkok, is the richest agricultural and most densely populated section of the kingdom.
AClimate Thailand has a moist, tropical climate, influenced chiefly by monsoon winds that vary in direction according to the season. From April to October the winds are mainly from the southwest and are moisture laden; during the rest of the year they blow from the northeast. Temperatures are higher, ranging from about 26? to 37? C (about 78? to 98? F), while the country is under the influence of the southwestern winds. During the remainder of the year the range is from about 13? to 33? C (about 56? to 92? F). Temperatures are somewhat higher inland than they are along the coast, except at points of great elevation.