control the operation of the computer. Escapist thoughts begin when the
operations of the programs have to be understood. In many cases, it is either
too risky or time-consuming to set the programs into action without considering
their likely consequences (in minute detail) first. Such detailed comprehension
of the action of a program often requires the person constructing the lists of
instructions (the programmer) to enter a separate world, where the symbols and
values of the program have their physical counterparts. Variables take on
emotional significance and routines have their purpose described in graphic
`action’ language. A cursory examination of most programmers’ programs will
reveal this in the comments that are left to help them understand each program’s
purpose. Interestingly, even apparently unemotional people visualise their
programs in this anthropomorphic manner Weizenbaum76,Catt73 .
Without this ability to trace the action of a program before it is performed in
real life, the computing industry would cease to exist. This ability is so
closely related to what we do naturally and call `escapism’, that the two have
begun to merge for many people involved in the construction of programs. For
some, what began as work has become what is done for pleasurable relaxation,
which is a fortunate discovery for large computer-related businesses. The need
for time-clocks and foremen has been largely eliminated, since the workers look
forward to coming to work, often to escape the mundane aspect of reality.
There are problems associated with this form of work motivation. One major
discovery is that it can be difficult to work as a team in this kind of activity.
Assigning each programmer a section of the project is the usual solution, but
maintaining a coherent grasp of the project’s state then becomes increasingly
difficult. Indeed, this problem means that there are now computers whose design
cannot be completely understood by one person. Misunderstandings that result
from this problem and the inherent ambiguities of human languages are often the
cause of long delays in completion of projects involving computers. (The current
statistics are that cost over-runs of 300 are not uncommon, especially for
larger projects and time over-runs of 50 are common SWEng ).
Another common problem is that of developed social inadequacy amongst groups of
programmers and their businesses. The awkwardness of communicating complex ideas
to other (especially non-technical) members of the group can lead them to avoid
other people in person and to communicate solely by messages and manuals
(whether electronic or paper).
Up to now, most absorption of the information necessary to `escape’ in this
fashion has been from a small number of sources located in an environment full
of other distractions. The introduction of Virtual Reality, especially with
regard to the construction of programs, will eliminate many of these external
distractions. In return, it will provide a `concentrated’ version of the world
in which the programmer is working. The flexible nature of VR means that
abstract objects such as programs can be viewed in reality (on the goggles’
screens) in any format at all. Most likely, they will be viewed in a manner that
is significant for each individual programmer, corresponding to how he or she
views programs when they have escaped into the world that contains them. Thus,
what were originally only abstract thoughts in one human mind can now be made
real and repeatable and may be distributed in a form that has meaning for other
people. The difference between this and books or paintings is the amount of
information that can be conveyed and the flexibility with which it can be
constructed.
The Dangers of Virtual Reality
As implied above, the uses of Virtual Reality can be understood in two ways.
Firstly, VR can be viewed as a more effective way of communicating concepts,
abstract or concrete, to other people. For example, as a teaching tool, a VR
interface to a database of operation techniques would permit a surgeon to try
out different approaches on the same simulated patient or to teach a junior
basic techniques. An architect might use a VR interface to allow clients to
walk around a building that exists only in the design stage ArchieMag .
Secondly, VR can be used as a visualisation tool for each individual. Our own
preferences could be added to a VR system to such an extent that anyone else
using it would be baffled by the range of personalised symbols and concepts. An
analogy to this would be redefining all the keys on a typewriter for each typist.
This would be a direct extension of our ability to conceive objects, since the
machine would deal with much of the tedious notation and the many symbols
currently necessary in complex subjects such as nuclear physics. In this form,
VR would provide artificial support for a human mind’s native abilities of
construct building and imagination.
It is the second view of VR, and derivations from it, that are of concern to
many experts. On a smaller scale, the artificial support of mental activities
has shown that once support is available, the mind tends to become lazy about
developing what is already present. The classic case of this is, of course,
electronic calculators. The basic tedious arithmetic that is necessary to solve
a complicated problem in physics or mathematics is the same whether performed by
machine or human, and in fact plays very little part in understanding (or
discovering) the concepts that lie behind the problem. However, if the ability
to perform basic arithmetic at the lowest level is neglected, then the ability
to cope with more complex problems does seem to be impaired in some fashion.
Another example is the ability to spell words correctly. A mis-spelt word only
rarely alters the semantic content of a piece of writing, yet obvious idleness
or inability in correct use of the small words used to construct larger concepts
often leaves the reader with a sense of unease as to the validity of the larger
concept.
Extending the examples, a worrying prediction is that the extensive use of VR to
support our own internal visualisations of concepts would reduce our ability to
perform abstract and escapist thoughts without the machine’s presence. This
would be evident in a massive upsurge in computer-related entertainment, both in
games and interactive entertainment and would be accompanied by a reduction of
the appreciation and study of written literature, since the effort required to
imagine the contents would be more than was considered now reasonable.
Another danger of VR is its potential medical applications. If a convincing set
of images and sound can be collected, it might become possible to treat victims
of trauma or brain-injured people by providing a `safe’ VR environment for them
to recover in. As noted Whalley , there are several difficult ethical
decisions associated with this sort of work. Firstly, the decision to disconnect
a chronically disturbed patient from VR would become analogous to removing pain-
killers from a patient in chronic pain. Another problem is that since much of
what we perceive as ourselves is due to the way that we react to stimuli,
whatever the VR creator defines as the available stimuli become the limiting
extent of our reactions. Our individuality would be reduced and our innate human
flexibility with it. To quote Whalley
Whalley directly,
“virtual reality devices may possess the potential to
distort substantially [those] patients’ own perceptions of
themselves and how others see them. Such distortions may persist
and may not necessarily be universally welcomed. In our present
ignorance about the lasting effects of these devices, it is
certainly impossible to advise anyone, not only mental
patients, of the likely hazards of their use.”
Following on from these thoughts, one can imagine many other abuses of VR.
`Mental anaesthesia’ or `permanent calming’ could be used to control long-term
inmates of mental institutions. A horrendous form of torture by deprivation of
reality could be imagined, with a victim being forced to perceive only what the
torturers choose as reality. Users who experienced VR at work as a tool may
chose to use it as a recreational drug, much as television is sometimes used
today, and just as foreseen in the `feelies’ of Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World.
Conclusions
Computers are now an accepted part of many peoples’ working lives and yet still
retain an aura of mystery for many who use them. Perhaps the commonest
misapprehension is to perceive them as an inflexible tool; once a machine is
viewed as a word processor, it can be awkward to have to redefine it in our
minds as a database, full of information ordered in a different fashion. Some
of what people find difficult to use about today’s machines will hopefully be
alleviated by the introduction of Virtual Reality interfaces. These should allow
us to deal with computers in a more intuitive manner.
If there ever comes a time when it is necessary to construct a list of tests to
distinguish VR from reality, some of the following observations might be of use.
The most difficult sense to deceive over a long period of time will probably be
that of vision. The part of the human brain that deals with vision processing
uses depth of focus as one of its mechanisms to interpret distances. Flat
screens cannot provide this without a massive amount of processing to
deliberately bring the object that the eyes are focussed upon into a sharper
relief than its surroundings. Since this is unlikely to be economical in the
near future, the uniform appearance of VR will remain an indication of its
falsehood.
Another sign may be the lack of tactile feedback all over the body. Whilst most
tactile information, such as the sensation of wearing a watch on one’s wrist, is
ignored by the brain, a conscious effort of detection will usually reveal its
presence. Even the most sophisticated feedback mechanisms will be hard-pressed
to duplicate such sensations or the exact sensations of an egg being crushed or
walking barefoot on pebbles, for example.
The sense of smell may prove to be yet another tell-tale sign of reality. The
human sense of smell is so subtle (compared to our present ability to recreate
odours) and is interpreted constantly, though we are often unaware of it, that
to mimic the myriad smells of life may be too complex to ever achieve
convincingly.
The computer industry will continue to depend upon employees who satisfy some
part of their escapist needs by programming for pleasure. In the near future,
the need for increased efficiency and better estimates of the duration of
projects may demand that those who spend their hours escaping are organised by
those who do not. This would lead to yet another form of stratification within a
society, namely, the dreamers (who are in fact now the direct labour force) and
their `minders’. It should also encourage societies to value the power of
abstract thought more highly, since direct reward will be seen to come from it.
Virtual Reality is yet another significant shift in the way that we can
understand both what is around us and what exists only in our minds. A
considerable risk associated with VR is that our flexibility as human beings
means that we may adapt our thoughts to our tool, instead of the other way round.
Though computers and our interaction with them by VR is highly flexible, this
flexibility is as nothing compared to the potential human range of actions.
Acknowledgements: My thanks go to Glenford Mapp of Cambridge University
Computer Laboratory and Olivetti Research Laboratory, Dr. Alan Macfarlane of
the Department of Social Anthropology, Cambridge University, Dr. John Doar and
Alan Finch for many useful discussions. Their comments have been fertile
starting grounds for many of the above ideas.
This essay contains approximately 4,500 words, excluding Abstract, Glossary and
Bibliography.
Glossary
Chip – for microchip, the small black tile-like objects that make
electronic machines. Computer – machine with a microprocessor and an
interface that
permits by the user. Database – collection of information stored on a
computer which permits.
to the information in several ways, rather like having multiple
in a book. Email – mail. Text typed into one machine can be transferred
to another remote machine. Microprocessor – stand-alone computer, with
little option for change by the user. Program – series of instructions to
control the operation of a microprocessor. Risk – often unforeseen dangers of
applying computer-related technology new applications. Stand-alone – to the
rest of the electronic world. User – human who uses the machine or computer.
VDU – Display Unit. The television-like screen attached to a computer. Virtual
- to mean `imaginary’ or `existing only inside a computer’ VR – Reality.
Loosely, an interface to any computer that
the user to use the computer in a more `involved’ fashion. Word processor
application of a computer to editing and printing text.
Bibliography
L. Mumford, Technics and Civilisation, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
New York, 1963, pp.13–15.
Babbage J.M. Dubbey, The Mathematical Work of Charles Babbage,
Cambridge University Press, 1978.
EarlyIBM
William Aspray, Computing Before Computers, Iowa State University
press, 1990.
Turing B.E. Carpenter and R.W. Doras (Editors), A.M. Turing’s
ACE report of 1946 and other papers, The MIT Press, 1980.
Bletchley
David Kahn, The Codebreakers, London, Sphere, 1978
JapanSord
Takeo Miyauchi, The Flame from Japan, SORD Computer Systems Inc., 1982.
Graphs
J.L. Hennessy and D.A. Patterson, Computer Architecture : A
Quantitative Approach, Morgan Kaufmann, California, 1990.
phones
Amos E. Joel, Electronic Switching : Digital Central Office Systems
of the World, Wiley, 1982.
comp.risks
comp.risks , a moderated bulletin board available world-wide on computer
networks. Its purpose is the discussion of computer-related risks.