reduce stress in both professional and non-professional workers. They go on to suggest that the more structured or formal the
rules, the higher the level of commitment to the organization.
The discussion to this point suggests that increased levels of individual stress, as measured by role ambiguity and role conflict,
are undesirable and that organizational dysfunction is a contributing factor to both. The concept can be expanded so that the
reduction of stress will encourage productivity by supervision that allows “an adequate degree of freedom for initiative in task
performance” (Stogdill, 1971). But, morale can be thought of as the “freedom from restraint” (Stogdill, 1971). The research
does not make the connection between notions of productivity, cohesiveness, and morale on the one hand and stress on the
other. However, morale is related to the development of stress as defined in the research. Stogdill defines the factors that make
up morale as:
1) the clear definition of roles, which permits each member to know what he is expected to do, and 2) the provision of enough
freedom for initiative so that each member can attack his task with confidence and a feeling of accomplishment (1964, 38).
Stogdill’s definition of morale is the reduction of stress and a proper degree of organizational formalization. A major part of
criminal justice literature deals with the combination of low morale and dissatisfaction in law enforcement officers. Cheek and
Miller (1983) call this the “double-bind” of corrections. As an example, guards who are over-controlled by the administration
react negatively and tend to be austere and inflexible with inmates (Blau, et al., 1986). Yet, if guards tend to be
uncompromising in enforcing regulations, they can lose control of the inmates (Wright, 1977; Clare and Kramer, 1976). The
guards are dependent on the inmates’ cooperation and acquiescence to maintain their control. Formal, highly structured
organizations often tend to have developed “scripts” learned through various organizational socialization, work experience and
symbolic management that can lead to a form of “mindless” behavior. Part of this “mindlessness” is a lack of vigilance in
operations, altered perceptions, hasty conclusions and fallacious learning. None of these factors is positive for either the
individual or the organization. Each serves only to increase role conflict and ambiguity (Ashforth and Fried, 1988).
II. RESEARCH ISSUES
The Sheriff and Undersheriff…, felt they had a problem between the divisions, especially between patrol and corrections, in
work attitude and general command response. These issues were displayed by the apparent dissatisfaction and lack of
enthusiasm for operations in the new state-of-the-art corrections facility. The proposed research examines the proposition that
the issues of law enforcement stressors were not properly connected to the actual tasks confronting the individual officer, and
the root cause of individual stress could be organizationally bound. Could the organization itself, the quasi-military structure
combined with the great individual discretion available to individual officers implemented by an improper level of formalization,
generate these stressor conditions?
Perhaps the constructs of role ambiguity and role conflict could explain the elements of law enforcement stressors discussed
above. The first research question, is: 1) Is law enforcement officer stress, as measured by role ambiguity and role conflict, the
result of organizational dysfunction?
Extended observations of various sheriff’s departments leads to the belief that stress is related to the division where one works.
The corrections division, in non-scientific observation, is perceived by officers to be a less desirable and of lower status than the
other police functions in the department. The question arises 2) Is Stress related to the Current Division where one works?
The different divisions of the department perform separate tasks under widely different working environments. This leads to the
question 3) Does the division affect the perceptions of the department’s needs as measured by the Organizational Factors
Inventory and if the answer is yes then is there a relationship between formalization and the current division? (1.Common
knowledge, would lead one to believe that in any multi-division organization the expectation would be for differences on the
items measured by the Organizational Factors Inventory relating to the needs and functions of the divisions. While the current
division may have an effect of formalization, it is doubtful that formalization will effect division. Unless the argument that form
creates function holds true.)
The purpose of the research is to study the association between the individual’s perceptions of group level attributes and
individual level perceptions of workers traits in the different operating divisions of the… Department. The first aggregate-level
attribute, organizational formalization, is measured by the “Hage and Aiken Formalization Inventory” (Aiken and Hage, 1966;
Hage and Aiken, 1967A; 1967B; 1970). The other aggregate-level attributes, role ambiguity and role conflict, are measured by
the “Index of Job-Related Tensions in Organizations of Robert L. Kahn, et al., (1964).
Incorporated into the study is an instrument developed in cooperation with the Sheriff used to measure organizational concerns
of the administration which were specific to the department, the “Organizational Factors Inventory.” Two other instruments
were also utilized. The first is a brief demographic questionnaire on personal information and professional background. Second,
is the Jackson Personality Research Form.
Robert L. Kahn et al., (1964) developed an “Index of Job-Related Tensions in Organizations.” The Tension Index consists of
two parts: role ambiguity and role conflict.
II. A. ROLE AMBIGUITY
Role ambiguity measures such items as an individual’s uncertainty about his or her responsibilities and what others expect from
him/her on the job actions. It also measures a level of organizational ambiguity. Role ambiguity is measured in an individual by
such questions as: 1) being unclear on just what the scope and responsibilities of your job are; 2) thinking that you will not be
able to satisfy the conflicting demands of various people over you; and 3) not knowing just what other people you work with
expect of you. On the survey used, eight questions composed the role ambiguity scale.
II. B. ROLE CONFLICT
The second aspect of the Tension Index, role conflict reveals another aspect of stress. These conflicts “within the structure of
the work role are major sources of stress” (Kahn, et al., 1964, 59). While these are often “minor or occasional irritants” they
can create personal stress. Kahn constructs role conflict from the concepts of “role overload . . . [and] person-role conflicts”
(59). Within this framework, questions arise such as: 1) feeling that you have too little authority to carry out the responsibilities
assigned to you; 2) feeling that you have too heavy a work load, one that you can’t possibly finish during an ordinary workday;
3) feeling that you have to do things on the job that are against your better judgement; and 4) feeling that you are not fully
qualified to handle your job. Seven questions constitute the role conflict scale. Both scales are scored with Likert type
responses.
II. C. FORMALIZATION INVENTORY
The “Hage and Aiken Formalization Inventory” (Aiken and Hage, 1966; Hage and Aiken, 1967 A; 1967 B: 1970) consists of
15 questions. The formalization index is broken down into five different scales: job codification, rule observation, rule manual,
job descriptions and specificity of job descriptions (Miller, 1983; Aiken and Hage, 1966). The job codification scale is made
up of such questions as: 1) I feel that I am my own boss in most matters; or 2) people here are allowed to do almost as they
please. Five questions make up a “job codification” scale.
Hage and Aiken’s “index of rule observation” consists of answers to two questions: 1) the employees are constantly being
investigated for rule violations; and 2) people here feel as though they are constantly watched to see that they obey all the rules.
The rule manual Question is: there is no rule manual. Along the same lines, a question on the employee’s job description asks
whether a complete, written job description exists for his or her job. The last formalization index, “specificity of job
description,” incorporates six questions. These questions are: 1) we are to follow strict operating procedures at all time; and 2)
everyone has a specific job to do. These individual questions are scored with a Likert Scale.
II. D. ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS INVENTORY
The last of the organizational instruments, the “Organizational Factors Inventory,” is a questionnaire consisting of sixteen items
taken from a “Nominal Group Technique” meeting held with approximately fifteen decision and policy makers of the
department, This consists of seven indexes. The first index consists of two questions, deals with staffing levels, and is designed
to determine whether the officers perceive a lack of staff to fulfill the tasks at hand. The second index concerns equipment and
is made up of two questions such as the amount and quality of the equipment available.
Third is the division differences’ index. The five questions included here are designed to determine the perceptions of the
officers as their division is seen by others in differing divisions and their knowledge of other divisions. Fourth is the pay question
asking “considering what I do, I am fairly paid.” Fifth is three questions dealing with organizational factors, such as the physical
separation of parts of the organization and lack of administrative staff. Sixth is a question on supervision. The last index
concerns public relations and consists of two questions concerning the need for increased public relations efforts. Again the
individual questions are scored with a Likert Scale.
II. E. PERSONALITY RESEARCH FORM
The sixth section, the Jackson Personality Research Form, is also an integral part of this research. McNeil and Rubin defined
personality as “. . . the pattern of characteristic behaviors and thoughts we use to deal with our environment” (1977, 447).
“The Personality Research Form represents an application of developments in the areas of personality theory, personality
assessment, and test theory to personality tests” (Jackson, 1984, 4). The scales are based on “carefully defined theoretical . . .
conceptions of what each scale should measure” (Jackson, 1984, 9). The PRF scale is designed to yield “a set of scores . . .
broadly relevant to the functioning of individuals in a wide variety of situations. It thus focuses primarily upon areas of normal
functioning, rather than upon psychopathology” (Jackson, 1984, 4). It provides a measure of twenty-one personality traits
coupled with an additional validity scale. A complete description of the scales are in the appendix.
III. Methodology
III. A. Sample Selection
The population frame for this study was the sworn personnel of
the Erie County, New York, Sheriff’s Department. All sworn
officers, except the Sheriff, Undersheriff and direct members of
the administration were included in the sampling frame. Table 1
includes a summary of some of the demographic characteristics of
the sample.
The unit of analysis in this study is the individual Deputy Sheriff
regardless of rank, except as noted above, in the… Department.
Two procedures were used to gather the data. The first was a
stratified, by shift, non-probability convenience sample. The
procedure used is as follows:
The rotating schedule of five days on and two days off has one
day where there are more people on duty than the rest of the
week. This is known as a “Wheel Day.” Memos were sent to all
division shift commanders with instructions to send as many
personnel as they could to the training room in the Holding Center.
The memo requested that officers of differing characteristics and
experience be referred. The first session was held at 5:00 A.M. to
catch the 12:00 to 8:00 A.M. shift. At 9:00 A.M. the second
session with the day shift people was held. On the next “wheel
day” at 2:00 P.M., another session with the day shift officers
(more than half the department works the day shift) was
conducted. At 5:00 P.M. a session to include some evening shift
people was held. This resulted in a sample size of sixty-three
officers.
At th