To V. I. Zabotkina's opinion some pragmatic reasons are the base of the generating motives. At first, it is a politeness, which has defined the creation of euphemisms for physical and mental defects. Secondly, taboo words, when euphemisms were used instead of direct names of diseases and deaths. Thirdly, it's the influence the general readers. Fourthly, it's restricness, which has influenced the creation of euphemisms within the different social illegal groups [23, p. 68-72].
According to А. M. Kacev's classification of generating motives there are three emotional spheres: fear, odium and shame [25, p. 67].
Linguists say these or those emotions are generating motives for the creation both euphemisms and dysphemisms. And perhaps the development of nominations with pejorative evaluation content was the base of making dysphemisms.
At present this kind of words gets into high level of vocabulary. Using words with negative meaning and invectives the speaker feels the magic influence that he or she is everything allowed. The domination of such words is a natural thing because people perceive negative sides of life more violent than positive ones. The latter is regarded as normal and that is why they are less emotive. Of course it is easier to hold somebody up to shame than to praise somebody to the skies.
CONCLUSION
Our objective conceptual world is realized through our local conceptual world. It is reflected with the help of different language means. The choice of words that we exchange in the intercourse depends much on the specific situation, our up-bringing, social position, education, cultural traditions, gender, age. Many euphemisms are so funny that many people laugh at them. They sometimes are called “white washing device”, because every euphemisms calls up a definite synonym in the mind of the reader or listener. Euphemisms have very serious reasons for being, because they conceal the things people fear the most – death, the supernatural. Thus, euphemisms are society’s basic language. Euphemisms are beloved by individuals and institutions who are anxious to present only the possible images of themselves to the world. A euphemisms may acquire unpleasant associations. In political and military language euphemisms are often used to conceal or deceive:
1. industrial strike was called the final solution
2. police action for war
3. armed reconnaissance for bombing
When a phrase is used as a euphemism it becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. They are used to hide disturbing ideas even when the literal term for them isn’t necessary offensive. The type of euphemisms used in public relations and politics is called doublespeak. Sometimes using euphemisms is equaled to politeness. There are euphemisms which are based on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word “cancer”), there are religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some words are sacred, that some words are spiritually imperiling (taboo). All cultures use them to talk about the things they find terrifying (e. g., war, sickness, death). We use euphemisms to express taboos as we feel on the instinctual level that the euphemism keeps us at safe distance from the taboo itself. Another use of euphemisms is to elevateу the status of something (e. g., using educator for a teacher, attorney for a lawyer), we use euphemisms to express what is socially difficult to express in direct forms.
Periphrasis is a basic means of euphemistic formation. They are formed by altering the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word. In American English words which are unacceptable on TV may be represented by deformations such as frenk even in children’s cartoons instead of fuck. Military and large corporations work out a lot of euphemisms of a more deliberate nature. Organizations coin doublespeak expressions to describe actions that seem neutral and inoffensive. Military organizations may kill people sometimes deliberately sometimes by mistake in doublespeak, the first is called neutralizing the target, the second is called collateral damage abortion originally meant premature birth. The meaning of term “abort” was extended to mean any kind of premature ending, such as aborting the launch of a rocket. Abortion came to mean induced abortion or elective abortion. A great number of euphemisms in English came from Latin roots.
The opposite sides of euphemisms are taboo words and dysphemisms. Dysphemism is an expression with connotations that are offensive. They are opposed to euphemisms because of content. The function of dysphemism is to aggravate the denotatum with the meaning which is more negative. They are used to offend somebody deliberately.
The motives of appearance of euphemisms:
1. superstition;
2. the feeling of fear;
3. sympathy and compassion;
4. the feeling of shame;
5. the feeling of politeness.
The formation of new nominations with euphemisms are based on 3 emotional sphere:
1. fear;
2. odium;
3. shame.
Euphemisms and dysphemisms get pejorative evaluation.
Psychological aspect of the study euphemisms and dysphemisms explains domination of euphemisms and dysphemisms in the active vocabulary. These words get into high level of the vocabulary. Using words with negative meaning, euphemisms and dysphemisms with pejorative evaluation makes the speaker feel their magic influence and that he or she is everything allowed. Very narrow local world view of a man makes negative sides of life more dominating than positive ones.
Classification of euphemistic mapping on the thematic principle divide them into different categories:
1. terms of foreign and technical origin ( copulation, security breach)
2. abbreviation (SOB for son of a bitch), abbreviation in clinical settings ( PITA for “pain in the ass” patient)
3. indirections (behind, privates, unmentionable)
4. mispronunciation (goldarnit)
5. cases with litotes or reserved understatement (not exactly thin for fat, not completely truthful for lied)
6. changing nouns to modifiers(right – wing element for “Right Wing”)
Appendix A includes 97 words with synonyms and their euphemistic variants.
Appendix B demonstrates examples of euphemisms and dysphemisms which appeared and based on the feeling of politeness and impoliteness, the feeling of shame, the feeling of fear, the feeling of compassion and sympathy. So we get extremely negative and offensive dysphemisms opposed to euphemisms which sound milder and contain a number of synonyms. Religious euphemisms date back to very early written records in Christian, Egyptian and Jewish religious rituals. Protection of sacred names has always given rise to euphemisms.
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APPENDIX A
Short glossary of words and their euphemisms (word – euphemisms)
| WORDS | SYNONYMS | EUPHEMISM WORD |
| accident | crisis, disaster | incident |
| addict | addiction substance, substance abuser | chemical dependency |
| adulterous | - | extramarital |
| arrest | - | apprehend |
| beggar | panhandler | homeless person |
| bombing | - | air support |
| break-in | - | break security |
| brothel | - | massage parlor |
| cheap | frugal, thrifty | economical |
| coffin | - | casket |
| complaint form | - | response form |
| confinement | - | detention |
| criminal | - | illegal |
| criminal (n) | - | juvenile delinquent |
| crippled | disabled | physically challenged |
APPENDIX A (continuation)
| WORDS | SYNONYMS | EUPHEMISM WORD |
| dead, departed | deceased, late, gone, lost | passed |
| death insurance | - | life insurance |
| death penalty | - | capital punishment |
| death | destination, demise, end | better world, afterlife |
| die | pass away, pass on, expire | go to heaven |
| drug addict | - | substance abuser |
| drugs | - | illegal substances |
| drunk (adj) | intoxicated, inebriated | tipsy |
| exploit (land) | - | develop |
| fail (v) | fizzle out, fall short | go out of business |
| false | - | prosthesis |
| false teeth | - | dentures |
| fat | overweight, chubby, portly | stout, plump |
| fire (v) | lay off, streamline, release, let go, downsize | rightsize |
| garbage collector | - | sanitation person |
APPENDIX A (continuation)